Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Electrolyte

MPB101 – CeramicsPage 3

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Electrolyte

1. Executive Summary

The merchandise is an electrolyte for a solid oxide fuel cell ; it needs to hold the ability to carry on a current by the transition of O2- ions through the lattice. Solid oxide fuel cells find applications in power workss, transit and in the armed forces.

The solid oxide fuel cells market is estimated to be deserving $ 443 Million USD in 2010, whilst being portion of the Fuel Cell market which is expected to turn to approximately $ 18.6 Billion by 2013. The solid oxide fuel cell market has a possible to turn massively within the following 10 old ages at a possible rate of 23 % per twelvemonth growing. Three major rivals within the market are Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd, Acumentrics and Ztek Corporation. RAC will necessitate to get rational belongings for the patent of the ‘tubular solid oxide fuel cell design ‘ in order to come in the automotive market efficaciously and vie ; this will nevertheless be RAC a big sum of capital. RAC will make good in the solid oxide fuel cell market with the right rational belongings licences, fabricating links and client base.

TC grade Yttria stabilised Zirconia is the most suited stuff for fiction of the solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte. The Yttria dopant provides high temperature stableness of the Zirconia into a three-dimensional construction, and provides O vacancies. TC grade Yttria stabilised Zirconia is a to the full stabilised pulverization for tape casting and provides the best mix of belongingss required for the solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte.

There are a big figure of methods of solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte processing, which can be classified into two types, which are used for solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte in planar design and in cannular design. Tape casting and slurry coating are most widely used methods for each sort of solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte, severally because of low cost, high public presentation and easiness of mass production, though other methods such as screen printing, thermal and plasma crop-dusting, and electrochemical vapor deposition, are besides used to accomplish specific belongingss of merchandises but extent of mechanization is lower than two methods mentioned below.

Therefore, for the new ceramic merchandise for RAC, tape casting and slurry coating are selected as fiction paths of planar design and cannular design to offer. In add-on, alteration of conventional tape casting and slurry to better green organic structure denseness and lower the cost is necessary. Improved version of colloid deposition technique and alteration conducted by Nextech can be applied for mass production.

2. The Ceramic Merchandise

A figure of power coevals engineerings are presently available to run into future energy demands ; nevertheless, they by and large have comparatively low efficiencies and bring forth unsought pollutant emanations. Solid oxide fuel cells have emerged as the most promising category of engineering for run intoing the prognosis demand during the twenty-first century in a mode that is energy efficient, environmentally friendly and cost competitory. Using fuels such as natural gas or propane, solid oxide fuel cell tonss based on oxide ceramics will supply electricity at really high efficiency rates, while being highly friendly to the environment. [ 1 ]

The basic constituent of a solid oxide fuel cell is the electrolyte. This stuff needs to be an imperviable ceramic, which has the ability to carry on a current by the transition of O2- ions through the crystal lattice. The easiness with which these ions pass through the electrolyte is measured by the electrical electric resistance of the electrolyte. [ 2 ]

Criteria for a solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte:

• High O ion conduction and minimal electronic conduction ( An oxide ion conveyance figure close to integrity ) .
• Good chemical stableness with regard to electrodes and substrates.
• High denseness, to avoid fuel crossing over to the cathode.
• High stableness in both oxidising and cut downing ambiances.
• Thermal enlargement compatibility with the other cell constituents.

Solid oxide fuel cells are attractive for electrical public-service corporation and industrial applications. The high operating temperatures and tolerance to impure fuel watercourses make the solid oxide fuel cell systems ideal for using H2 and CO from natural gas steam reforming and coal gasification workss, in which its waste heat can be used either in bottoming rhythms and to supply all or portion of the procedure heat for gasification.

Future applications must be seen in the context of economic sciences versus possible competition, such as, gas turbine combined rhythm systems and systems utilizing other fuel cells, peculiarly liquefied carbonate fuel cells. The latter are likely to be less efficient but they are likely to hold a lower capital cost than a unit utilizing solid oxide fuel cells. [ 3 ]

Solid oxide fuel cells find three chief energy utilizations ; these are stationary energy beginnings, such as power workss, transit and military application.

Stationary solid oxide fuel cells would be the primary power beginnings for installations such as, places, offices edifices, industrial sites, ports, and military installings. They are good suited towards mini power grid applications at such topographic points as universities and military bases. Harmonizing to the solid-state energy transition confederation, the world-wide demand for electricity is expected to duplicate in the following 20 old ages. Solid oxide fuel cell engineering will be ideal, since much of the awaited demand is expected to come from turning economic systems with minimum substructure. Solid oxide fuel cells can be positioned on site, even in distant locations, doing it possible to fit power coevals to the demands of the site.

Stationary solid oxide fuel cell power coevals is no longer merely a hope for the hereafter. Siemens Westinghouse has tested several paradigm systems, with first-class consequences. There is a works in the Netherland that had been operational for nine old ages, and an earlier paradigm that has been runing for 15 old ages. The fuel cells have been through 100s if non 1000s of thermic rhythms and the electromotive force debasement during the trial clip has been less than 0.1 % per 1000 hours.

Within the transit section, solid oxide fuel cells are likely to happen applications in both commercial and personal vehicles. In Diesel trucks, they are likely to be used as subsidiary power units to run electrical systems such as air conditioning and onboard electronics. These units would forestall the demand to go forth Diesel trucks running at remainder Michigans, hence taking to a economy in Diesel fuel outgos, and a important decrease in both exhaust gases and noise degrees.

Solid oxide fuel cells are of a high involvement to the military because of their ability to be established onsite in distant location. They are besides quiet and non-polluting. Besides, the usage of fuel cells could significantly cut down the deployment costs of operations. [ 4 ]

3. Current Market and Future Potential

The market for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells has changed on a large graduated table in the past 10 old ages due to force per unit area of authoritiess and conservationist groups coercing for new ‘cleaner and greener ‘ energy beginnings. Match this with the ever-depleting dodo fuel beginnings and the entryway for more solid oxide fuel cells to be sold both commercially and domestically is going more of a certainty.

The market in 2003 was estimated to be $ 123 million USD and reached an estimated $ 300 million USD in the five twelvemonth spread with an mean one-year growing rate ( AAGR ) of approximately 23 % . With the bulk of this market portion being within North America and the remainder split between Japan and Europe [ 5 ] .

The market will hold evidently increased once more since 2008 and with the same AAGR approximately seting it someplace in the estimated part $ 443 million USD mentioning to the chief market [ 6 ] . This is an estimation merely for the solid oxide fuel cells market which makes up a little portion of the fuel cell market itself, which is estimated to turn overall excessively approximately $ 18.6 Billion USD by 2013 within the automotive, stationary and portable energy beginnings markets [ 7 ] .

The jutting future growing of the solid oxide fuel cell market is dependent on several factors nevertheless it is more of a certainty that it will increase but is clip dependent on these several factors ; new stuff development, cost decrease of stuffs and production techniques and evidently the biggest factor being demand for the merchandises [ 8 ] .

The European market itself has non yet reached full commercialisation but is expected to be come ining it within this twelvemonth ( 2010 ) and is expected to get down full maturing by twelvemonth 2012 and have estimated commercial gross of $ 61 million within the first twelvemonth [ 8 ] .

For these markets to develop further a monolithic sum of research and development is taking topographic point across the Earth, with North America taking the manner in footings of commercialisation and being able to offer existent working merchandises already whereas countries such as Japan and Europe are still working on a commercialised merchandise for sale [ 6 ] .

Around the universe, there are an estimated 850 million vehicles, approximately 75 % of which are personal cars. This figure is expected to increase by around 30 % over the following decennary.

With more rigorous environmental limitations in the United States and European Union, car makers are under force per unit area to convey non-polluting autos to the market place. Solid oxide fuel cells are attractive chances because of their ability to utilize readily available, cheap fuels. [ 4 ]

Solid oxide fuel cells are of high involvement to the armed forces because they can be established on-site in distant locations. Furthermore, the usage of fuel cells could significantly cut down deployment costs, as: 70 % by weight of the stuff that the military moves is nil but fuel. [ 14 ]

Major International Competitors Report

Leading planetary companies playing within the market include but are non limited to the followers ; Ceramic Fuel Cells Limited, ZTEK Corporation, Acumentrics [ 6 ] .

Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd.

CFCL is going a universe leader within the solid oxide fuel cells engineering and merchandises with an purpose to supplying dependable, energy efficient, high quality and low emanation electricity from widely available natural beginnings [ 9 ] .

Financially gross revenues gross from clients is up 42 % to ?288k compared to 2007, which was ?203k ; operational hard currency escape increased to a monolithic ?9.3 million with a expression to monolithic merchandise and engineering development every bit good as fabricating graduated table up and provide concatenation alterations [ 10 ] .

The company is looking towards a more commercial end product after developing its to the full stacking and fabrication works in Heinsberg, Germany after passing a full 12.4 million Euros. Match this with the skill of a ?3.1 million works in Merseyside, UK, with the purpose of doing high quality ceramic pulverizations utilizing the company ‘s proprietary engineering [ 10 ] .

CFCL besides hold a big sum of rational belongings that they own covering their engineerings and trade secrets – the patents they hold can be found listed in mentions [ 10 ] [ 11 ] if required [ 11 ] .

ZTEK Corporation

Ztek Corporation was founded in 1984, and is a company dedicated to developing and commercializing the universe of solid oxide fuel cells, which generate electricity flawlessly via electrochemical reactions. Ztek itself has a big lineage in its ain develop solid oxide fuel cell units since development began in 1994 about 16 old ages of development have lead to them being one of the most experient concerns in the market [ 12 ] .

Ztek aims its merchandises chiefly at the stationary and transit markets, with a large focal point on the distributed coevals market with its stationary 200kW power faculties with a chief end of cost-effectiveness. Demand for their merchandises is being forecast at 20 % per twelvemonth as an addition until 2012 in line with the addition and alteration to cut down overladen national grid countries.

Ztek besides has diligently obtained protection in the signifiers of patents for its technological promotions due to their high possible value and therefore will merely offer licences for their patents to companies that are non in direct competition with Ztek themselves [ 12 ] .

Acumentrics Corporation

Founded in 1994, Acumentrics is a maker of usage power merchandises, based chiefly with merchandises aimed at military and industrial countries up until the twelvemonth 2000 when they acquired rational belongings of the cannular solid oxide fuel cell design. Since so they presently produce a scope of fuel cells between 1-10kW to qualified clients with proficient cognition [ 13 ] .

The company operates in the undermentioned markets ; military uninterrupted power supplies, transit, place energy and telecoms. Their solid oxide fuel cells are regarded as one of the most efficient and with several advantages over others in the market due to it holding no traveling parts, minimum on-going care and negligible degrees of pollutants [ 13 ] .

4. Electrolyte Materials

The general design of a individual solid oxide fuel cell consists of four beds – the shell, cathode, anode and electrolyte. Three of these four beds are made from ceramics or complexs with ceramic parts. The chief constituent we are interested in is the stuffs used for the electrolyte.

The electrolyte has some specific demands for its stuffs pick with the chief obvious belongings is the ability to run at really high temperatures, which ceramics excel at, as the bulk of solid oxide fuel cells operate at temperatures between 500 to 1000oC. However, several other major belongingss are required for the stuff to be used as a solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte including ionic conduction and electrical conduction.

Electrolyte – Materials

Due to the electrolyte necessitating to let O atoms to migrate through its organic structure to the fuel side of the cell, it must possess high ionic conduction and no electrical conduction. It must besides be to the full heavy to forestall responding gases doing short-circuiting through it whilst being every bit thin as possible to minimise resistive loses within the cell. Finally, with its utilizations across a broad scope of temperatures it must be thermally, chemically and structurally stable across the scope.

Yttria Stabilised Zirconia is suggested as being the most popular and suited stuff used for the electrolyte bed. Yttria as a dopant serves a double intent of at high temperatures stabilising the Zirconia into the three-dimensional construction whilst besides supplying O vacancies at the rate of approximately one vacancy per mole of dopant. A typical dopant degree is between 8 mol % and 10 mol % of Yttria [ 15 ] .

Two other stuffs that are used as the electrolyte – doped bismuth oxide and doped Ce oxide. Bismuth oxide-based stuffs operate at much lower temperature degrees, less than 800OC and have high ionic conduction but the chief issue with them is that they have hapless crystalline stableness at high temperature to be utile across a wide spectrum [ 16 ] .

Sing doped Ce oxide stuffs, they have two prevailing dopants they are coupled with, these being Samarium and Gadolinium. The chief advantage is that it has a much high ionic conduction in air but can besides run efficaciously at much lower temperatures i.e. under 700OC. With this lower temperature scope, it significantly broadens the other constituent ‘s stuff picks, which can be much more readily available and much less expensive.

The usage of Gadolinium and Samarium as a dopant with Ce oxide is chiefly because it introduces oxygen vacancies in the crystal construction without the debut of electronic charge bearers. However this stuff does endure from a decrease on the anode ( fuel ) side of the cell which can cut down the Ce ( IV ) oxide into the Ce ( III ) oxide accordingly increasing the electronic conduction of the stuff, which as stated earlier demands to be kept to minimum degrees.

Corruptible Material Grades

Yttria-Stabilised Zirconia 8 mole % Standard Grade:

YSZ-8 pulverization processed for low intrinsic sinterability and decrease in sintering shrinkage.A

Surface Area:1-3m2/g

Formulation:( Y2O3 ) 0.08 ( ZrO2 ) 0.92

Atom Size:nominally 3-5 Aµm

Yttria-Stabilised Zirconia 8 mole % TC Grade:

The TC class is most popular for tape casting applications due to its trim surface country and atom size distribution, and is a to the full stabilised pulverization for tape casting, ink industry, pellet pressure and other non-aqueous procedures.

Surface Area:6-9m2/g

Atom Size:0.5 to 0.7 Aµm

Gadolinium Doped Ceria ( Gd 20 % ) M Grade:

The “ M ” class ceria has high catalytic activity and reduced sintering temperature with the benefit of easier fiction into pastes and tapes.

Formulation:( Gd ) 0.20 ( Ce ) 0.80 ( O2 )

Surface Area:30-40 m2/g

Atom Size:0.3-0.5 Aµm

Samarium Doped Ceria ( Sm 20 % ) M Grade:

The “ M ” class ceria has high catalytic activity and reduced sintering temperature with the benefit of easier fiction into pastes and tapes.

Formulation:( Sm ) 0.20 ( Ce ) 0.80 ( O2 )

Surface Area:30-40 m2/g

Atom Size:0.3-0.5 Aµm

5. Processing Paths

Categorization and comparing

For solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte, there are a big figure of methods of processing, including tape casting, pressing and sintering, reactive magnetron spatter, screen printing, faux pas casting, tape calendaring, electrochemical vapor deposition ( EVD ) , slurry surfacing and plasma spraying et Al. [ 17 ] Thus, each method of processing, with its characteristic and demand, is applied in different conditions to do electrolytes and hence fuel cells, execute optimal belongingss.

Solid oxide fuel cells are categorised into two groups: tubular and planar designs. In add-on, planar cell design consists of electrolyte-supported and anode-supported [ 17 ] . The categorization, which depends on which constituent of solid oxide fuel cell has ruling map, consequences in distinguishable method of processing. Among conventional fiction paths, tape casting, which is shown inTable. 1,the most widely used fiction path in electrolyte-supported planar cell design because it is easy for mass production, while pressing and sintering is applied in an American company named SOFCo. As illustrated inTable.2, in anode-supported planar cell design, screen-printing is a widely used deposition engineering. Owing to consideration of cost, in most instances, reactive magnetron spatter, vacuity faux pas casting and wet pulverization spraying are rarely used for processing of electrolyte in commercial solid oxide fuel cell, though magnetron spatter is a high-performance engineering in obtaining thin beds. In add-on, in cannular fuel cell design, companies manufacture electrolyte in fiction path of EVD ( Siemens Westinghouse ) , slurry surfacing and slurry printing. Application of slurry coating is chief tendency because of costTable.3.

Besides, such processing methods as optical maser extirpation, multiple spin coating, colloidal deposition, chemical vapour deposition, spray pyrolysis and cataphoresis have been taken into history and tested in research lab but their scale-up is rather far off from world owing to cost of industry [ 17 ] . Some new fiction paths based on conventional paths, such as Nextech, improved version of colloid deposition technique and combination of isostatic pressure and tape casting are introduced in the undermentioned content.

In peculiar, fabrication path of solid oxide fuel cell Zirconia electrolytes varies with fuel cell design ; cannular design requires that electrolytes processed by EVD while plasma-spraying and tape casting are suited for segmented-cells-in-series design and flat-plate design, severally.Thymineable.4gives more elaborate information on the fiction path of thin Zirconia electrolytes in solid oxide fuel cells.

Planar design

Tape casting

Tape casting is dominant in processing of electrolyte-supported solid oxide fuel cell electrolytes [ 20 ] . The ground why tape casting is widely used is its high-performance movie and low cost of fiction. The entire cost scopes from 3-6 US $ /kg tape. If water-based chemicals are used, the cost will be lift to 8-16 US $ /kg tape [ 20 ] .Furthermore, during tape laminating, alone stuff “ textures ” is formed. This accomplishment can non be made by other conventional techniques [ 21 ] .

However, disadvantages of tape projecting necessarily exist. Defects in sintered tape include clefts, bubbles, agglomerates, surface craters, cryings, falsifying and print interruption [ 19 ] . Fine pulverization together with little sintered grain size causes decrease of surface raggedness. If several beds of tape are bonded together, bonding of beds may take to fluctuation of denseness and different shrinking during sintering, and therefore clefts [ 19 ] .

Tape calendering

Tape calendering is a technique used to bring forth really thin electrolyte bed [ 4 ] .This technique is applied to fabricate massive fuel cell with governable thickness after co-sintering procedure. The advantage of tape calendering is that runing temperature of fuel cell electrolytes made from Zirconia stabilised by 8 mol % Y2O3 ( YSZ ) can be reduced to 600? , which means lessening of energy and cost [ 20 ] .

Screen-printing

Different from tape calendering, the screen-printing is a technique to organize porous or heavy bed, widely used to fabricate intercrossed circuit. The thickness of each bed ranges from a few micrometers to 10 micrometers [ 20 ] .

By choice of ceramic pulverization and control of sintering procedure, porousness and good binding of bed to substrate can be achieved. The solution to organize thick beds with fewer clefts is repeated surfacing and sintering of thin beds [ 20 ] .

Defects of this processing method contain nothingnesss and pinholes in prints, distribution of print thickness and distribution of uniformity of print [ 19 ] .

Tubular design

Electrochemical vapour deposition ( EVD )

Electrochemical vapour deposition ( EVD ) which is modified from chemical vapour deposition ( CVD ) , is a fiction path for thin electrolytes in cannular design of solid oxide fuel cells, the thickness of which is around 40 micrometer [ 21 ] .There are two phases of deposition of electrolyte. In the first phase, which is a CVD procedure, the undermentioned reactions give account to the formation of oxide, which cut down the pores on the substrate [ 22 ]

MeCly+2yH2O=MeOy2+yHCl

MeCly+2yO2+yH2=2MeOy2+2yHCl

In the 2nd phase, the growing of oxide abides by reactions as follows [ 22 ] .

MeCly+12O2-=MeOy2+12Cl2+ye-

12H2O+ye-=12H2+y2O2-

Because of its expensive cost, many alterations of EVD procedure every bit good as other fiction paths of cannular SOFCs replace conventional EVD.

Slurry surfacing

Slurry coating is used to organize thin porous bed. YSZ electrolytes can be fabricated by this processing method. One of advantages of slurry coating is that merchandises can be prevented from seeable clefts by reiterating this rhythm 5-10 times [ 20 ] .

Thermal and plasma crop-dusting

The advantages of thermic and plasma crop-dusting is that stoichiometry of multi-component compounds remains the same and high growing rate can be achieved, in the procedure of production of high-kinetic-energy the atoms [ 20 ] .

Defects in thermic spraying contain pores, micro clefts, hapless adhesion in some parts, non-uniformity of liquid stages and thickness [ 18a ] .

In all these procedure of thick movies and coatings, which consist of thermal, and plasma crop-dusting, slurry coating, cataphoretic coating and screen-printing, there are some common defects, which are shown inTable.5[ 19 ] .

Sintering

Sintering is a procedure that increases denseness and strength of merchandise by constitution of bonds between atoms and between atoms and substrate. If grain size is finer, the temperature required for sintering is lower. However, agglomeration of all right atoms brings troubles of processing because of formation of pores. Therefore, sintering is of import that controls quality of the merchandise [ 20 ] .

New engineering and alteration of conventional fiction path

The deposition procedure developed by Nextech Materials with Siemens Westinghouse is a replacing of EVD because of its high cost. There are three phases of this procedure. First, a suspension of nano-scale YSZ crystallites is prepared utilizing hydrothermal synthesis procedure in order to better scattering of the suspension. Next, YSZ electrolyte movies are deposited onto La manganite ( LSM ) cathode tubings by low-priced dip coating and spray coating methods which provide high green denseness of merchandises. Finally, the movies are sintered.

The advantages of this alteration include: ( 1 ) low cost ( 2 ) high green denseness and high uniformity of YSZ electrolyte which addition solid loading and stableness ( 3 ) cleft free YSZ electrolyte achieved by sintering rhythm [ 18b ] .

Improved version of colloid deposition technique

This technique which is applied to lodge YSZ movies on NiO/YSZ substrates or porous La0.85Sr0.15MnO3 substrates can do thickness of each bed up to 100 micrometer. It can non be achieved by conventional paths [ 18c ] .

If thicker movies can be produced in a individual coating, the decrease of times of surfacing agencies short processing clip and therefore low cost. Actually, high thickness of electrolyte should be ensured otherwise short circuit may happen because of intensive diffusion of constituents of the cathode, anode and electrolyte originated by high runing temperature of Siemens Westinghouse fuel cell which is up to 1000. However, clefts are more apparent when bed are deposited in a individual coating instead than repeated coating of thin beds [ 18c ] .

Combination of isostatic pressure and tape casting

Although tape casting has its ain advantages, a new technique which has combined isostatic pressure and tape casting, makes an betterment of original one. Low-cost conventional tape casting can non accomplish high green tape denseness owing to the sum of dissolver every bit good as binders and plasticizers in the slurry. As shown in experimental consequences harmonizing to Chen, M. , Wen, T.L. , et Al. (Table.6) , the consequence of isostactic pressure which is applied at 200 MPa before sintering, the green denseness creeps up by 8-11 % owing to diminish of volume of tape [ 18d ] .

Merits of application of isostatic pressure are non merely embodied in rise of green denseness of tape, but besides addition of sintered membrane denseness by 5-10 % together with betterment of electrical conduction [ 18d ] .

6. Our Recommendation

The recommended ceramic to fabricate would be TC grade Yttria stabilised Zirconia. This is the most suited stuff for fiction of the solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte. The Yttria dopant provides great stableness of the Zirconia into a three-dimensional construction at really high temperatures, whilst at the same clip supplying O vacancies. It is besides the most popular pick for tape casting applications because of trim surface country and atom size distribution. TC grade Yttria stabilised Zirconia is a to the full stabilised pulverization for tape casting and provides the best mix of belongingss required for the solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte. [ 15 ]

Yttria-Stabilised Zirconia 8 mole % TC Grade:

The TC class is most popular for tape casting applications due to its trim surface country and atom size distribution, and is a to the full stabilised pulverization for tape casting, ink industry, pellet pressure and other non-aqueous procedures.

Surface Area:6-9m2/g

Atom Size:0.5 to 0.7 Aµm

When it comes to future fiction path, it requires low cost, possible for mechanization, duplicability and environmental friendliness [ 1 ] . Some of conventional processing methods are still widely used and advantageous, so there is no demand to acquire rid of them but alteration based on conventional method is necessary so that cost can be lowered and high efficiency can be achieved.

For solid fuel cell electrolytes in planar design, tape casting is recommended because of its low cost and easiness of mass production. Combination of isostatic pressure and tape casting makes high green organic structure denseness ; nevertheless, it is still non extremely recommended because it is an experimental consequence without mass production.

For those in cannular design, slurry coating is selected owing to non merely cost and mass production facet but besides because thin beds, which can be achieved by this method, is a tendency of future solid fuel cell electrolytes. Timess of coating can be reduced with application of improved version of colloid deposition technique introduced above. In this manner, efficiency is improved and therefore cost is lowered. In add-on, since EVD is a method that can bring forth high-preference electrolyte in cannular design and the lone ground it is abandoned is high cost, alteration conducted by Nextech can be selected because its low disbursal and high-quality merchandises.

7. A Reasoned Argument

In order to do a opinion to continue or non, several facets and restraints need to be taken into history before a concluding determination can be made.

To get down with the demand for some rational belongings in the signifier of a patent will be required if Rennib Advanced Ceramics ( RAC ) Ltd want to force into all SOFC markets i.e. stationary, automotive and portables ( military equipment ) .

The ground for this being that the ‘tubular SOFC design ‘ is the most appropriate design for usage in the automotive subdivision whether it is as a chief power supply or subsidiary supply due to its smaller size.

The licence for this patent would necessitate to be gathered from Siemens Westinghouse and would be a important sum of capital and clip. This usage of capital would necessitate reimbursing from the merchandises in allows RAC to bring forth therefore increasing their unit cost.

However one time acquired, this would let RAC entryway into all the above stated markets, with merchandises that are in line with current rivals within the markets already.

With mention to the earlier rival analysis it would look that several countries can be specialised in order for a company to separate itself ‘ from other rivals and therefore addition market portion.

The chief manner to make this seems to be by developing engineering or a fabrication technique that no other rival utilizations in any of these markets, which benefits from better efficiency or lower production costs as these are two major barriers to get the better of in order to come in the market successfully.

This is because it provides a direct differentiation, which one time patented no other rival can utilize and therefore would give RAC a addition in market portion – nevertheless this is an easy procedure to speak about and really difficult to really accomplish. Again, if a rival achieves this before RAC it may stifle their ability to continue in the market and therefore lower RAC ‘s market portion in bend.

Other more standard ways to derive market portion include better client service, better build quality of the manufactured parts and links to larger companies and a bigger client portfolio than other rivals do.

The current size of the markets that RAC would be come ining have been turning well for the past 10 old ages with more recent developments taking to more research support and development turning faster every bit good as some gross in the North American market for gross revenues form some companies.

That said the European market is yet to make full commercialisation, intending that RAC would non be far behind their chief rivals if come ining now nevertheless they would necessitate to be able to rapidly screen out fabrication installations and a good ceramic pulverization provider in order to vie efficaciously with the likes of CFCL, who are presently get downing to establish their first commercial merchandise in the approaching months.

The future potency of the market is the most of import factor as it is a instance of when and non how this large push for solid oxide fuel cells will go evident as it is a fit certainty in the hereafter but is merely clip dependent on research and developments. However this prognosis could potentially non be for 5-10 old ages, but when it does finally go on the market value will lift significantly into the possible $ 1 Billion USD scope.

Runing a concern on that footing is slippery and RAC will hold to set a big sum of capital into fabrication installations, acquiring licences for rational belongings and plowing hard currency into research and development in order to outshine market rivals.

There is a big capital hazard for RAC to come in this market nevertheless ; there is besides a great wages that is dependent on market adulthood within the following 5 old ages.

8. Mentions

[ 1 ] Global Ceram.Rev. No.1, 2000, Page 6

[ 2 ] Fuel Cell Systems, Advances in Chemistry Series 47, Robert F. Gould, Page 332

[ 3 ] Fuel Cell Systems, Edited by Leo J. M. J. Blomen and Michael N. Mugerwa, Pages: 473, 487

[ 4 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.csa.com/discoveryguides/fuecel/overview.php

[ 5 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.bccresearch.com/report/EGY048A.html

[ 6 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nrc.org/press/PRshow.html? id=3162

[ 7 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/328482/

[ 8 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.azom.com/news.asp? newsID=10877

[ 9 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.cfcl.com.au/ – CFCL ‘s Profile and Website

[ 10 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fuelcellmarkets.com//news_and_information/3,1,443,1,27380.html

[ 11 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.cfcl.com.au/Intellectual_Property/

[ 12 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ztekcorp.com/sofc.htm – ZTEK ‘s Profile and Website

[ 13 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.acumentrics.com/about-company.htm – Acumentrics Profile and Website

[ 14 ] Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance hypertext transfer protocol: //www.seca.doe.gov/overview.html

[ 15 ] ( S.C. Singhal, 2000 )

[ 16 ] ( J.H. Liou, P.J. Liou, T.S. Sheu, 25-28 April 1999 )

[ 17 ] . Brandon, N.P.Fuel Cells Compendium.Oxford: Elsevier, 2003. pp. 250-256.

[ 18a ] . Minh, N.Q.The Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells ( SOFC-VI ) .[ erectile dysfunction. ] S.C.and Dokiya, M. Singhal. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society, 1999. p. 127.

[ a8b ] . Minh, N.Q.The Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells ( SOFC-VI ) .[ erectile dysfunction. ] S.C.and Dokiya, M. Singhal. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society, 1999. p. 135-143.

[ 18c ] . Minh, N.Q.The Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells ( SOFC-VI ) .[ erectile dysfunction. ] S.C.and Dokiya, M. Singhal. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society, 1999. p. 172-178.

[ 18d ] . Minh, N.Q.The Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells ( SOFC-VI ) .[ erectile dysfunction. ] S.C.and Dokiya, M. Singhal. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society, 1999. p. 144-152.

[ 19 ] . Reed, J.S.Principles of Ceramics Processing.The Second Edition. New York: John Wiley & A ; Sons, Inc, 1995. pp. 525-538. ISBN 0-471-59721-X.

[ 20 ] . Simader, G. Kordesch, K.Fuel Cells.s.l. : VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, 1996. pp. 145-148.

[ 21 ] . Singhal, S.C. , Dokiya, M. , [ erectile dysfunction. ] .Solid Fuel Cells ( SOFC-VI ) Proceedings of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells.s.l. : the Electrochemical Society, 1999. pp. 144-149.

[ 22 ] . Larminie, J. , Dicks, A.Fuel Cell System Explained.2rd Edition. Chichester: John Wiley & A ; Sons Ltd. , 2003. p. 210. ISBN-10 0-470-84857-X ( H/B ) .

[ 22 ] . Minh, N.Q. Ceramic Fuel Cells.Jounal of America Ceramic Society.1993, pp. 563-588.

9. Appendix

common defects in surfacing [ 3 ]

Defect type cause Void and pinholes Trapped air or gas in syrupy surfacing Colour spots Coagulation of pigment atoms Vertical runs Gravity flow moving ridges Air currents or shear craters Contamination such as dust, gel atom, and oil on the surface before glaze Benard cells Circulatory flow within surfacing caused by differential surface tenseness, temperature, or denseness when dissolver evaporates Orange Peel Localised fluctuations in surface tenseness across surfacing Picture bordering Surface tenseness gradient due to faster vaporization of dissolver and atom migration near border Non-levelling Surface tenseness gradients caused by differing vaporization rates of constituents Crawling Surface tenseness of coating is excessively high De-wetting Contaminated surface creates high interfacial tenseness

consequence of isostatic pressing [ 2d ]

Green tape 1 Green tape 2Area ( mm2 ) thickness ( millimeter ) denseness ( g/cm3 ) Area ( mm2 ) thickness ( millimeter ) denseness ( g/cm3 ) As received 400 0.09 2.92 375 0.31 2.87 Isostatically pressed 380 0.09 3.16 355 0.29 3.2 Area shrinking % 5.0 5.3 Density alteration % 8.2 11.5

Samuel BainesGeorge CraneWen Lu