Creating a learning organizational culture

 1) You have been invited to a management discussion forum with an invited audience of middle level managers. The theme is Creating a learning organizational culture. Your role is to present the case that HR systems can a make a difference to the creation of such a culture. Prepare a case for this that also addresses problematic areas of human resource development activity

            Creating a learning organizational culture

1.0. INTRODUCTION

      An organizational culture is not extraneous to members of the organization, but is an integral part of their habits, tendencies, and practices. It derives from the shared history, expectations, written and unwritten rules, values, relationships, and customs that affect everyone’s behaviour in an organization (Marcia L. Conner and James G. Clawson, 2007). Progressive theories tried and tested and adopted for continued implementation; hypothesis metamorphosed into theories, and then into policies and practical rules and traditions; foreign values adapted to the internal realities and  peculiar organizational  challenges and adopted in transformed and congenial forms—these are part of  the observable facts and developments out of which of a genuine organizational culture evolves.

      Therefore a learning organizational culture is one in which internal and extraneous learning theories as well as every staff and management  initiative prompted by a desire to learn, have become an established system of  everyday ritual and tendency among staff and management. Learning is the process of consciously or unconsciously assimilating information for  the purpose of application in real-life, challenging situations (Mark K. Smith, 1999, 2003). Learning theories highlight the process of this assimilation by a child or an adult.  Hence, a learning organizational culture is the practice of conscious or unconscious application of realistic learning theories to actual organizational situations and challenges.

     Human Resource (HR) systems, on the other hand, are integrated solutions designed for the efficient execution of Human Resource Management tasks. Essentially, then, they are a coordinated management of Human Resource problems and affairs. These problems and affairs include the management of knowledge base, reporting career development, compensation administration, resignations, retirements, payroll processing, performance management and employment insurance processing (INFO TECH RESEARCH GROUP, 2008 & HRM, 2007).  Each of these Human resource affairs is a subject of consideration, something of a field of concern with its own peculiar challenges and potentials for organizational furtherance. For instance, payroll processing is central to the continued existence and advancement of an organization (since on it depend the proper remuneration and continued involvement of workers); and satisfactorily meeting the challenges of compensation administration will inevitably boost the cooperativeness and morale of employees who have been subjected to administrative lapses and injustices.

      Therefore, because practical information is necessary for the adoption, maintenance and running of HR systems, the very reason for instituting HR systems necessitates the existence of learning organizational culture.  Besides, HR systems being an efficient means of managing human resources, the knowledge acquisition it makes compulsory for Management promotes and enhances learning cultures.  Thus, HR systems both necessitate and further the creation of learning organizational culture.

     This writing will attempt to demonstrate this assertion. It will attempt to show how learning theories can evolve and become transformed into learning organizational cultures. In so doing, it will also show that Human Resource systems can make a difference to the creation of learning organizational culture  and show how in spite of the well-known problematic nature of Human Resource development activity, HR  systems can still make  a difference to the creation of learning organizational cultures.

2.0. LEARNING THEORIES AND LEARNING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES

     Since they are concerned with “how or why change [the outcome of learning] occurs” (Mark K. Smith, 1999, 2003), learning theories can offer some clarification about how genuine learning organizational cultures (that is, those that are actually part of the practices of an organization) are established and sustained.  The outcome of   genuine learning, according to the introductory section (section 1.0), is practical knowledge and skill, which manifests in (better) competence and capacity. This fact is illustrated in Ryle’s (1949) statement quoted in Mark K. Smith’s Learning Theory:

     …excellence at surgery is not the same thing as knowledge of medical science; not is

      it a simple product of it. The surgeon must indeed have learned from instruction, or

      by his own inductions and observations, a great number of truths; but he must also

      have learned by practice a great number of aptitudes.(Ryle 1949: 48-49)

     Therefore a practical consideration of learning theories will show or reveal how genuine learning is or can be achieved, and how it can be made the focus of a learning organizational culture. (Here, the implied distinction between “genuine” and “non-genuine” learning is important because where a learning organization cannot bring genuine learning to its members, it remains a hollow, unenviable system unworthy of any serious attention and consideration.)

     Three well-known learning theories will be considered: The Behaviourist (Stimulus-response), the Cognitive Learning theory and the Humanistic learning theories.

2.1. THE BEHAVIOURIST (STIMULUS-RESPONSE) LEARNING THEORY: This theory is concerned with behavioural change in the process of learning. It suggests that learning is best achieved when a clearly-defined objective informs frequent practice and activity on the part of the learner, and the offering of regular tests and rewards, on the part of the instructors and of stakeholders in the realization of learning objective ( Mark K. Smith, 1999, 2003).  The theory suggests that a clear and accepted focus should motivate learning—must be present  before learning begins— and that the acquisition of learning should be verified or investigated by regular tests in relevant situations ( or “environments”).

    The necessity for such contextualised tests informed John B. Watson and Edward L.Thorndike’s Stimulus-Response model whereby learners are deliberately put in simulated real-life situations, or even observed in actual situations, to verify or investigate the extent of their learning.

2.2. THE COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY observes that learning is a product of mental processes, memory and initiative which are stimulated by external challenge (Min-Yu Sherry Chang, 1998). It therefore suggests that the knowledge and skill acquired through learning are the outcome not only of what is taught or read, or perceived through any of the five senses, but also of the imagination, recollection, innovation, etc of the learner , which “collaborate” to “create” new information as the individual actively tries to meet the challenge at hand. “Cognitive theory emphasizes events that take place inside the learner” (ibid), and as a consequence, recommends the promotion or creation of conducive physical and social environments as well suitable psychological mind frames for genuine and effective learning.

2.3. HUMANISTIC LEARNING THEORY: In this theory, “the basic concern is for human growth” ( Mark K.Smith, 1999, 2003). It identifies the fundamental motivation for genuine learning as a passion for personal growth, as something human rather than intellectual, something integral to the individual rather than an external impulse. It is an easily verifiable fact that passionate desires stimulate and maximize receptivity and comprehension. That the personal concern for “human growth” does inform well-focused and meaningful learning is thus readily understandable.  With this inference, the Humanistic theory necessitates the precondition of personal interest and focus for the possibility of genuine learning.

3.0. APPLICATION OF LEARNING THEORIES IN THE CREATION OF LEARNING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES

     The creation of organizational learning culture involves first and foremost an appreciation of the peculiar challenges and circumstances of the organization under consideration, an appreciation of the nature of the management and staff plus an appreciation of its Human Resource Management policies. This set of appreciations naturally excludes the importation and direct adoption of learning cultures from other organizations, however successful such cultures may have been.  Therefore, if it is to be successful, the application of learning theories for the creation of organizational cultures must be done against the background of the peculiar situation and circumstances of the organisation to which they are to be applied.

      For the creation of a practical learning culture, the behaviorist theory prescribes that every organization should  so articulate its goals and objectives that they become absolutely clear to every member. In other words, the goals and objectives must be the very first thing which every new member of the organization learns and on which he or she must be tested through the observation and simulation methods prescribed by the Behaviorist theory. Such tests might be performed through looking out for a consistent trend in the task execution by individual or collective members of the organization in order to compare such a trend with the implications of the organizational objective realisation for the individual or group in question.

     One very important practical implication therefore emerges from the demands of the behaviorist theory on the creators of organizational learning culture: Only such members of an organization as can clearly appreciate the laid-down organization goals and objectives, and who demonstrate their appreciation through excellent responses to the prescribed Behaviorist theorist tests, only such must be allowed to remain

in the organization. Only such individuals or groups could become a part of a genuine organizational learning culture.

    However, the Human Resource Management of an organization must endeavour to understand the general nature and tendencies of its members, and must be careful to apply appropriate standards both of imparting goal-and-objective information to them and of setting tests to investigate or verify members’ appreciation of this information.

      Next, all that is learned must be clearly relevant to the possibility of the optimum discharge of duties and the overall progress of the organization—members must clearly see how  what they learn applies to these necessities. The clear appreciation by members of the direct relevance of what they learn to the best-possible, or at least better, fulfilment of their tasks, makes what is learnt easily assimilable. Additionally, it urges members to create information and learn problem-solving skills of their own accord.

    The cognitive theory of learning thereby sets a precondition: the active interest of the learning individual. Without the active interest of members, the conscious or subconscious motivation to apply memory, imagination and intelligence in creating new problem-solving information, and thus acquiring practical, unprompted on-the-job skills, will certainly be limited.

      Finally, the humanistic learning theory, being a theory that necessitates the presence of genuine motivation for personal growth in members, recommends that the Management not only motivates staff towards striving for personal growth, but that they clearly show how the fulfilment of duty, how their personal involvement in the organizational goals and objectives, and how self-development and improvement, can contribute towards their personal growth.  Motivated thus, staff will become keen on learning both in the information-assimilation and in the problem-solving ways.

 4.0. HUMAN RESOURCE SYSTEMS AND THE CREATION OF A LEARNING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

     Human Resource Systems (HR) facilitates the execution of Human Resource Management tasks (INFO TECH RESEARCH GROUP, 2008 & HRM, 2007). Such Human Resource tasks relevant to the creation of a learning organizational culture include the management of organizational Knowledge Base, Performance Management, Career Developoment, and Training Administration (ibid).

    In facilitating the execution of these tasks, HR Systems reduces the time HR personnel spends on routine matters, allowing more time for “strategic planning” ( ibid). Such strategic planning can include the deliberate adaptation of learning theories to the peculiarities of management and staff, formulating testing strategies and reward systems ( as the behaviourist theory recommends) and the creation of staff and management on-and-off-the- job learning-process monitoring.  These possibilities can be seen in the following HR systems aspects:

4.1. MANAGEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE BASE: In the creation of a learning organizational culture, the goal of management is “to augment the collective IQ of organizations” (Marcia L. Conner & James G. Clawson, 2002). Fulfilling this goal clearly involves more than the mere impartment of apparently useful information and technological skill. Information and technology “… have the ability to augment what active learners can learn [by helping] them … generate new insights” (ibid). But this augmentation can come about only when information and knowledge are relevant to staff’s current challenges and can thus be assimilated (absorbed and applied).

    The HR systems’ Management of knowledge base can help separate useful information and technological knowledge in the knowledge base of an organization from irrelevant, impractical and outdated ones, so that only what can be really be learned and assimilated remains for employment, application , consideration and absorption by  management and staff.

4.2. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT: For the creation of a learning organizational culture, Performance Management through HR systems goes hand in hand with the management of Knowledge Base. The performance of management and staff in the execution of tasks and responsibilities will justify the presence of the knowledge base, suggest its redundancy, indicate where modifications to it are called for, or encourage its upbuilding or furtherance. HR systems, being a coordinating mechanism, naturally unites its performance management function with its knowledge base function, and , according to the program included in it, will efficiently and promptly  deliver modification or upbuilding feedbacks.

4.3. CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING ADMINISTRATION:

     Information about preferred and recommended lines of career development for each management and staff member is managed by the Career Development function of HR systems.  Obviously, since HR systems is a coordinating system, information about the requisite knowledge and skills for these lines of development can be used alongside the Knowledge Base and Performance Management data to prescribe ranges of learning and of training courses for each member of the organization whose data is contained in the HR, regularly managed and updated.

     Thus, HR systems significantly facilitates Training Administration, according to the data contained in its Knowledge Base, Performance Management and Career Development sections.

   Because recommendations for career development and training administration are directly related to the personal growth and to the fulfilment of organizational goals and objectives, these two sections of HR systems will certainly contribute to the creation of genuine organizational learning cultures.

5.0. PROBLEMATIC AREAS OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY

     Human Resource Development (HRD) activity “includes [a] range of activities to develop personnel inside of organizations, including … career development, training, organization development, etc” (Carter McNamara, 2008). In the management of HRD, HR systems are known to encounter the following problematic areas: Integration with other applications; Data Security and Privacy; and Availability of Information for performance Management tasks (INFO TECH RESEARCH GROUP, 2008 & HRM, 2007). However, the application of learning theories in conjunction with the employment of HR systems can considerably manage these problems in the process of creating a viable organizational learning culture.

5.1. INTEGRATION WITH OTHER APPLICATIONS: The problem of integrating HR system data with the data of other applications can lead to delays and setbacks in HRM processes. The solution or mitigation of this problem is readily available in the Humanistic, behavioural and cognitive learning theories which prescribe personal involvement ,motivation and innovation as vital ingredients in the creation of organizational learning cultures. Where motivation for personal growth is present in the majority of management and staff, then the rigours of data integration become less of a problem because people will be wiling joyfully to sacrifice their time and energy either to pass through cumbersome alternative processes, or to undertake innovative investigations towards finding a more efficient method.

5.2. DATA SECURITY AND PRIVACY: The security and privacy of HR systems data depends largely on the reliability and faithfulness of the personnel in charge of data.  These qualities will be reasonably guaranteed in staff and management where the recommendations of the behaviourist and humanistic theories indicated above are fully observed.

5.3. AVAILABILITY OF INFORMATION FOR PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT TASKS: The Humanistic and behaviourist learning theories offer a special solution to the problem of constant availability of information; for where self-motivated workers are fully aware of the importance of constant availability and update of HR systems data, they will supply the necessary information on a regular basis and of their own accord.

6.0. CONCLUSION

  This writing has attempted to demonstrate what genuine learning and genuine organizational learning culture are. It has make a case for the unavoidable necessity of adjusting all learning theories and principles to the general peculiarities and tendencies of  particular members of an organization ( to their receptivity).  Three learning theories were considered for their practical relevance to the creation of an enduring organizational learning culture. These theories were examined in the context of the working of HR systems which hold great potentials for the creation of learning cultures. The problematic areas of applying HR systems for the establishment of such cultures were considered, and it was demonstrated that in spite of these problems, the human and innovative assets recommended by the three learning theories considered, can manage the creation and establishment of genuine organizational learning cultures.

                                                        References

 Advanced Learners Dictionary, 2006. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Creating a Learning Culture <http://www.eauk.org/hrnetwork/upload/Learning%20Culture.pdf > Accessed 21st August, 2008.

Creating a Learning Culture <http://www.eauk.org/hrnetwork/upload/Learning%20Culture.pdf> Accessed 22nd August, 2008.
Creating a Learning Culture By Marcia L. Conner and James G. Clawson

< http://agelesslearner.com/articles/lc_connerclawson_tc600.html> Accessed 23rd August, 2008

Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2008 Edition
Smith, M. K. (1999) ‘Learning theory’, the encyclopedia of informal education, <www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm> Accessed 20th August, 2008

 Learning Theory and Advertising by Min-Yu Sherry Chang   <http://www.ciadvertising.org/studies/student/98_spring/theory/learning.html>

2)  Critically evaluate the role and function of HR departments within organizations and discuss ways that they can improve their strategic value to the organization with reference to case examples.
HUMAN RESOURCE DEPARTMENTS WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS

 1.0. INTRODUCTION

      Human Resource Departments within organizations have specific range of roles and functions which, though varying from one organization to another, show common personnel-welfare characteristics.   Generally ideal and at times idealistic, these roles and functions are often clearly articulated in formal documentation ( Davidson, 2000). They range from advertising recruitment openings to screening applicants; from managing the welfare of personnel to seeing to their career growth and increasing competence; implementing loss prevention programs to ensuring efficient management of personnel personal data and vital statistics.  However, observations have shown that what is executed and implemented does not always correspond with the written promises of roles and functions (Charles, 2004). Frequently, there are observable significant gaps between HR policies and real organizational practices and traditions. Nevertheless, these responsibilities and services have often enough served as strategic assets to many an organization.  They help, quite considerably, towards the realisation of short and long-term goals and objectives, forming indispensable backbones therein which must be encouraged and preserved.

     This writing will attempt to present this fact in broad outlines and fairly detailed elaboration. It will offer a critique of these roles and functions, and show ways in which their total fulfilment (which is not always seen today in many organizations) can increase the strategic worth of an organization.  Three real-life case examples will be used as illustrations.

2.0. THE ROLE AND FUNCTION OF HR DEPARTMENTS

    Since HR departments are concerned with Human Resource Management, they have the function of  enhancing “worker motivation, productivity and performance” (Human resource management.co.uk ).These functions give a number of roles which can be considered under the following seven responsibilities: Recruitment and Examination of job applicants; Job Classification Development; Management of Labour and Employee Relations; Maintenance of Personnel Records; Development, Formulation and  Implementation of Personnel Policies, Programs and Procedure;  Provision of Staff Support to the Personnel Board;and Administration of workers’ compensation (Charles, 2004).

     Each of these roles will be evaluated critically:

2.1. Recruitment and Examination of Job Applicants: The purpose of enhancing “worker productivity  and performance” (Human resource management.co.uk) justifies the HR department’s role of recruiting and examining job applicants, i.e. inviting qualified people to make applications and winnowing out the most competent. The addition of most competent applicants to the Human Resource stock of an organization will not only augment its productivity and performance but will increase its potential for broader scopes of operation.  When applied in progressive, innovation-friendly working environments, the formal and personal skills of such applicants will serve this purpose very excellently.  The recruitment and examination role of organizations is therefore wholly justified—theoretically.

    In practice, the procedures organizations adopt in recruiting and examining applicants do not always fulfil their objective of employing the most suitable applicants.  For instance, Exquisite Glory, an Igbegunrin soap-making company and Dreams and Actualities ( D ; A), a hardware marketing organization, in common with many an  organization, follow a rigid processes of  determining the most suitable candidates. They depend largely on the information and inference from “formal credentials, written and oral examination and structured interviews” ( James , 2004). These processes, revealing as they are, lack something so vital to fulfilling the best-selection purposes of organization: assurance of consistency of performance and competence. This assurance, as Davidson (2000) suggests, lies in the knowledgeable application of viable learning theories in an environment of genuine and vibrant organizational learning culture.

     When applicants present brilliant certificates and credentials, genuine or fake, and perform excellently at tests and interviews for which they had so conscientiously and uncharacteristically studied and prepared, do they thereby offer assurances that they will constantly demonstrate such conscientiousness and hard study, as is necessary for the growth of the organization, when they get employed? A workable means for securing this assurance is lacking in these apparently flawless procedures.

2.2. Job Classification Development:  Job classification involves the categorisation and organization of jobs for the purpose of identifying and evaluating similarities and dissimilarities, and offering pays and compensations commensurate with the evaluated worth and demands of jobs  (James, 2004).  The outcome of such evaluations enables the assignment of appropriate job titles to particular jobs, and where similarities or dissimilarities are identified, recognition of the extent to which job-holders or organizational departments can collaborate and liaise with one another.  Development of Job classification definitely fulfils the function of enhancing “worker’s motivation, performance and productivity” (Human resource management.co.uk).

     However, in many an organization, the development of job classification has either deteriorated into a “dead and alive” procedure, or is performed with such disrespectful negligence as makes the process defeat its purpose (ibid). This inattention has given birth to  the designation “job declassification” ( Charles, 2004), which suggests that the application of job classification in a good number of organizations does more harm than good, that such jobs are better left as they “unclassified”  and “untampered with”, because application of job classification to these jobs has led to wrong assessments and classifications.

2.3. Management of Employee relations and Labor relations:  Organizations value satisfactory and invaluable employer-employee relations as a HRM necessity, and put so much into preserving them (Charles, 2004).  Hence, settling staff-management disputes on the basis of employment-related statutes, ensuring the execution of collective labour union agreements, and updating staff and management on union bargaining information, are among the key roles of HR departments.

     Poor management of employee and labour relations will undoubtedly lead to sour relations between staff and  management, liability to strike action, half-heartedness and deterioration in organizational learning culture, which presupposes continual good relations—understanding, appreciation and cooperativeness—between management and staff.

 2.4. Maintenance of Personnel Records: HR departments recognise the value and significance of up-to-date personnel records, especially because they make planning realistic, reveal the current state of workforce performance and productivity, and prevent misuse or waste of organizational human and material resources (Davidson, 2000). It is presumably in recognition of the necessity of maintaining personnel records that many organizations employ HR systems, not minding the demands they make on them for constant information update and regular customisation. Updated personnel records not only facilitate the monitoring of workforce efficiency, they also ensure that corrective and disciplinary measures are taken against erring or undutiful staff and management members.

     Reports show that viable organizations have good personnel record maintenance cultures, and that the few that do not update these records have less satisfactory staff-management relations than those that do update them (ibid). This observation justifies the value and significance to organizational growth which HR departments ascribe to updating personnel records.

2.5. Development, Formulation and Implementation of personnel Policies, Programs and Procedures:  This HR role is clearly closely connected with the maintenance of personnel records (James, 2004).  Typical personnel records contain every piece of information on the workplace welfare and performance of management and staff.

     Based on these records, and perhaps also on some organization-furthering philosophy and theory, policies and programs are formulated for the growth and development of the organization. These programs include various staff training programs, health insurance schemes and pension schemes popular in many countries. Organizational growth and development imply as the first essential, the constant consideration of the welfare of the workforce. Thus, development and formulation of programs and policies must be crowned with their implementation.

     Unfortunately, the procedures for the implementation of these often beautifully articulated programs are not always as beautiful as these programs (James, 2004).  Personal interests and internal factions often overrule the well-formulated procedures, making organizational objectives only half-realisable.

2.6.   Provision of Staff Support to the Personnel Board: To complement the efforts of the personnel board, HR departments provide them with regular staff support. Such support includes ensuring that management and staff provide the personnel board with information updates, inviting suggestions for performance improvement from staff, etc.  HR departments generally   recognise the value of staff support to personnel board, and ensure that such support is readily available.

2.7. Administration of Workers’ Compensation: HR departments administer a broad range of emolument and welfare programs for management and staff, according to the evaluation outcomes of their job classification procedures, that is, according to the estimated value of the positions of each worker. This classification is generally hierarchical, that is, from top management down to proletariat junior staff. Such programs entitle workers to benefits such as administrative leave, auto allowance, dental allowance, life insurance, medical insurance and sick leave (Charles, 2000).  Such compensations have been shown to have some proportionality to workers’ motivation and performance (ibid): A survey carried out on a set of  30 UK-based  textile companies and  30 America-based software manufacturing industries offering 15 different types of compensation and emoluments to their workers revealed that  workers in these organizations were remarkably keener on learning and on getting personally involved in the furtherance of the organizations than on  another set of 30 UK-based textile companies and 30 America-based software companies which offered 9 of the different types of compensation offered by the first set of companies (Charles, 2004).

 3.0. THE STRATEGIC VALUE OF HR DEPARTMENTS TO ORGANIZATIONS

     Since an organization is “a unit of interrelated and unified parts with specific objectives which it sets out to achieve within the context of its immediate and wider environment” (Charles, 2004), the development and maintenance of sound strategy is vital for its existence and continuity. For an organization that cannot or does not work constructively and progressively towards the realisation of its specific objectives is practically non-existent. It is an empty structure with no essence and substance. The specific objectives an organization sets for itself are first and foremost directed towards its immediate and wider physical and social environments ( McJohnnie, 2002).

    Strategy is “the direction and scope of an organization through which it achieves long-term objectives within a challenging and competitive physical and social environment” (ibid).  Thus, only such human and material assets as help an organization towards the realisation of the range of its objectives among its competitors, or as can make it more competitive by broadening the scope of its activities and facilitating the realisation of its objectives, has strategic values for an organization.

     Therefore, to evaluate the strategic values of particular organizational activities, it is necessary to examine the extent to which such activities satisfy the objectives of the organization in respect of its challenging and competitive immediate and wider environments. A cursory examination of the previous sections will show that the roles and functions of HR departments are significantly strategic to the realisation of organizational objectives. They are directed towards furthering the welfare and optimising the performance of the workforce so as to guarantee the possibility of becoming  a  competitive unit, working as a focused unit and thus, realising its short and long-term objectives.

      Therefore HR departments within can improve the strategic value of organizations through:

(1)   Ensuring its workforce is competent and progressive

(2)   Identifying areas of possible collaboration and liaison  between different departments

(3)    Compensating its workforce adequately

(4)   Effectively Managing the complaints and grievances  of staff and Management

(5)   Encouraging regular skill upgrade and acquisition

 3.1. Ensuring workforce’s Competence and Progressiveness—will keep the efforts focused and ensure workers apply themselves formally and personally for the fulfilment of clear and understood organizational objectives. It is easily understandable that only a competent and progressive workforce can impact meaningfully on the progress of any organization.

3.2. Identifying areas of possible collaboration and liaison between different departments—will facilitate cooperation and joint efforts, and encourage creative exchange of ideas, constructive criticism and non-formal supports. It will involve workers more in the progress of the organization, encouraging the application of initiative and innovation.

3.3. Compensating workforce adequately—will encourage workers’ involvement in and loyalty to the fulfilment of organizational objectives. Compensation includes more emoluments and other employment benefits that encourage progressive workers to keep up their efforts. It shows the organization’s appreciation of their worth and thereby boosts self-esteem and morale.

3.4. Effectively managing the complaints and grievances of staff and Management— is also an expression of an organization’s appreciation of the values of its workforce, which will encourage voluntary support and cooperativeness.

3.5. Encouraging regular skill upgrade and acquisition— will promote workers’ efficiency, and make it possible for them to get more involved in the organization’s progress.

4.0. CASE EXAMPLES

   For a practical illustration of the foregoing expositions, case examples of three organizations will be used. These organizations have rather similar policies and strategic approaches. They are Exquisite Glory, a soap-making company in Igbegunrin, Ondo State, Nigeria; Dreams and Actualities, a hardware marketing company in Plateau State, Nigeria; and Ever Forward Limited, a defunct Stock Broker Company in Moscow, Russia.

4.1. EXQUISITE GLORY: Established in 1977, Exquisite Glory had recorded business fortunes which generally ranged between dull and mediocre:  Only during the Dry and Harmattan seasons, apparently when dust stains compels the need for greater washing, only then do they observe a relative rise in customer patronage (During these periods, retailers come from time to time to place fairly large orders of approximately the same sizes.)

    However, in 1995, a review of the commercial and marketing activities of the company was carried out by professional business and marketing professionals. Recommendations were given, documented and implemented.

    The recommendations, which became fully implemented by 2004, centred around motivating workers, enhancing their workplace condition and reviewing their monetary compensations (McJohnnie, 2002). Essentially, motivating them and trying to bring out the best in them.

    Today, thanks to its enhanced strategic value, Exquisite Glory witnesses a steady growth both in annual turn-out (productivity) and customer patronage (ibid)

4.2. DREAMS AND ACTUALITIES: Since its establishment in 1985, Dreams and Actualities has witnessed a steady growth in its workers’ welfare packages: A more or less steady increase in salaries, a regularly update personnel (first biannually, then annually), periodic IT-skill training programs for workers and inter-departmental collaboration (McJohnnie, 2002). Examinations from various professionals revealed a practically directly proportional relationship between the business fortunes of Dreams and Actualities and the quantum of these welfare packages (ibid). This proportionality suggests that the growths in the fortune of the company was considerably, if not entirely, due to the increase in its strategic strength. The strategic value increase was attributed to the industriousness of its HR department (ibid).

4.3. EVER FORWARD LIMITED:  As with Exquisite Glory, dull fortunes and mediocre client patronage compelled a strategic overhaul in Ever Forward Limited.  Their Stock and shares were given quite good publicity which, unfortunately, did not nearly correspond with what clients and would-be clients met when they called at the office branches of the company: The attentiveness of personnel was half-hearted; the information they gave clients generally did not satisfy the clients; their limited knowledge was obtrusive and the lack of enthusiasm and vitality in their public relations was apparent.

      This dismal trend was managed through reconstituting its HR department. First, new employees into this department had to pass through qualitative screening recruitment processes, which examined and re-examined their skills, subjecting them to rigorous test. Then, the old employees had to undergo sets of superior training program. Their welfare packages were radically reviewed: Complaints and grievances  were documented and promptly dealt with; emoluments of free accommodation, free Heath care, life insurance, among others, were given  workers; employee and labour relations  were improved; and the company had to relocate and change its name into Greenfield Limited.

    Before its bankruptcy and eventual fold-up in 2006, the fortunes of the company steadily grew. Unprecedentedly.

5.0. CONCLUSION

   This writing has sought to demonstrate that the theoretical roles and functions of HR departments within organizations have clear potentials for strengthening their strategic value. This fact necessitates that these formal responsibilities should fully become an integral part of the practical tradition of organizations.

                                                             References

Advanced Learners Dictionary, 2006

Business Loss Prevention Techniques; http://www.pimall.com/nais/n.loss.prev.html ; Accessed 21st August, 2008

Charles, A 2004), Employers and Employees. New York: Harper Perennial

Cyril, R.E (2006) Organizational Strategy and Human Resource Development. New York: Harper Perennial

 Human resource management.co.uk ;http://www.humanresourcemanagement.co.uk/resourcemanagement.htmAccesed ;20th August, 2008

McJohnnie, M. (2002) Compensations in Human Resource Management. Routledge

3). Evaluate the impact of equal opportunity legislation on HR practice citing suitable business examples to illustrate your answer.

THE IMPACT OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITY LEGISLATION ON HR PRACTICE

1.0.  INTRODUCTION

     HR practice and equal opportunity legislation have special common humanitarian

concerns: equity and fairness. While HR practice advocates and implements fairness and equity in employment and self-application opportunities as well as pay-according-productivity systems (David Metcalf ;  Sue Fernie, 2004), equal opportunity legislation works against discrimination in employment and seeks to promote fair  distribution of employment opportunities( B-equal.com).  Theoretically speaking, therefore, equal opportunity legislation supports and promotes the practice of HR.

     This line of reasoning is, however, supported by evidence in HRM systems which observe the equal opportunity codes of their states: Their HR policies are confirmed and consolidated, and new dimensions to the necessity of the policies emerge which have been explored really beneficially.

    This writing will expand upon the line of reasoning and bring in illustrations of three real-life HRM businesses which demonstrate the truth of this reasoning.  For greater impact and intelligibility, both will be preceded by a thorough literature review of HRM which will directly or indirectly highlight the relevance of equal of equal opportunity policies

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. David Metcalf ; Sue Fernie

     David Metcalf and Sue Fernie, respectively professor of industrial relations and researcher officer of the London School of economics, offer educative insights into the profits and shortcomings of HRM policies.  They recognise HRM organizations as fair-minded, properly remunerative bodies which seek to cultivate cooperativeness among its members in an effort to make the best-possible use of the formal and personal capacities and competencies of the members. Most HRM organizations do not, however, allow workers the options to participate or stand aloof but more or less impose their conditions of greater flexibility and extra working hours on every worker. As a result, these organizations make workers resign their appointments, encourage their absenteeism and cause strained management-staff relations.

      HRM policies create traditions that encourage the full involvement of management and staff in the growth and development of organizations.  They place less emphasis on well-known hierarchical system of duties, and encourage instead participatory senses of responsibilities, self-application across departments and exercise of initiative and creativity. Thus HR practices involve more than the transmission of information about the welfare and undertakings of the organization down the hierarchy, from management to staff, but recommend the creation of team briefings and the creation of quality circles through which ideas are compared and shared, and perhaps adopted for strategic implementation.  Transmitted information is critically and constructively considered and utilized for the progress f the organization. Thus they seek to inculcate a sense of ownership, a sense of being actual stakeholders into members.

      To ensure that this sense of responsibility and ownership is inculcated into workers,    HRM policies prescribe a wide range of motivational packages. These include “relating pay to performance, care with selection and training, fair treatment of employees… [as well as] profit-sharing and employee share schemes …” Such packages will not only encourage workers’ industriousness, they will encourage commitment to the progress of the organization.  Besides, they make it evident that workers’ payments are linked to the fortunes of companies.

     Because the full involvement HRM advocates entails flexibility, dynamism and an ability to work longer than normal hours, equal opportunity is given to all applicants to demonstrate the extent to which they posses these abilities.  Such abilities do not depend on race, age or creed, but on the formal and personal attributes of the applicant.

     However, one apparent drawback characterises HRM organisations: managers are known to compel workers to make extraordinary exertions, which in spite of the caring compensations and emoluments, makes workers absent themselves from work from time to time, or to resign their appointments.

2.2. Carter McNamara,

     Carter Mc Namara, an MBA holder and a PhD in Sociology, dwells more on Management’s approaches to the fulfilment of organizational objectives. He recognises the roles of HR departments as being directed mainly towards managing the “staffing” needs of an organization.  However, because “staffing” involves recruitment and retention of workers for longer or shorter periods, effective record-keeping of staff and good staff compensation are part of the roles of HRM.

     In fulfilling the “staffing” needs of organization, HR departments do not depend solely on recruiting full-time workers, but may opt for hired labour for short-term tasks. Whether they employ them on a short-term or long-term basis, HR departments should ensure they are high performers (By implication, a policy or standard for short-term workers that determine the range of their discretion and the quality-mark of their services will have to established or at least improvised where they do not already exist.)

    To ensure that short and long-term workers perform their best, HR departments must arrange regular training programs for them, create welfare records for them, design well-deserved compensation or emolument schemes for them, which will be regularly updated, and must be sensitive and responsive to their grouses and requests. These obligations are inseparable from any genuine HRM. They are important enough to warrant the procurement and running of efficient HR systems in which records of performance, welfare package schemes, training administration, retirement benefits, etc are updated and managed with due diligence and regularity.

     In addition, HRM ensures that “personnel and management practices” conform to certain set of regulations.

2.3.    John Bratton, Jeffrey Gold, and BRATTON

     John Bratton, Jeffrey Gold, and BRATTON offer a rather comprehensive and analytic

Idea of HRM. They consider HRM the result of adopting a number of models, theoretical ideas and conceptional assumptions. Their perspective of consideration offers a more critical than an expository idea.

     “Human resource” being individual workers are quite unlike other resources in that they have talent, skills, the capacity to decide in favour of or against, the ability to form unions, etc. This fact makes the management of human resource a complex and delicate task.   In order to manage it desirably, the unique nature of this “resource” and what informs its behaviour must be well appreciated.  Therefore, a number of co-related perspectives and theories giving insight into these two necessary factors have been adopted. This include the organizational behaviour theory, which suggests that human behaviour within organizations is influenced by “ability, motivation, role perception, and situational contingencies” (“Behaviour” must be taken to refer to performance, the tendency to cooperate or protest the application of skills and talents, etc. )

      Another adopted theory is McGregor’s theory Y (1960) that performance and commitment can be strengthened by leadership inspiration and exemplariness. Such adopted theories have informed many a HRM policy; for instance, the tradition of seeking to optimize performance of managers (leaders) and workers or the belief that creating favourable workplace conditions will motivate workers to greater efficiency and cooperativeness.

 3.0. EQUAL OPPORTUNTY LEGISLATION

      Equal Opportunity Legislation is a law against employment and workplace discrimination on account of race, gender, age, disability, religion, marital status, and suchlike physical and social differences.  The law arose out of the observation that men and women were from time to time, or often, discriminated against on grounds of these differences in recruitment, on-the-job training, remunerations and emoluments, redundancy decisions, and the like.  Between 1970 and 2005, a number of Acts and regulations were promulgated to legalise and enforce the provision of equal employment and workplace opportunities to every man or woman satisfying the basic qualification or merit requirements irrespective of their physical state, orientations or social background. Organizations are to comply with the Acts and regulations, and are advised to have written policies that reflect them. Groups of these Acts and regulations are briefly considered below:

3.1. Race Relations Act (1976) and Race Relations Amendments Act (2000): These Acts outlaw discrimination on account of race, colour, ethnic group, nationality or national origins. They make unlawful racially motivated harassment and victimisation, segregation of employers on account their race, colour, ethnic group, nationality or national origins, etc; or imposing workplace conditions which puts a set of races at a  disadvantage. The Race Relations Amendments Act (2000) seeks to promote not only good relationships between members of different races but also the distribution of equal opportunities among them (B-Equal.com)

3.2. Employment Act 2002 and Employment Equality Regulations (Religion or belief) Act 2003: These ensure that workers get equal considerations in respect of such benefits as leave and pay (maternity, paternity, adoption leave and pay, etc). They also allow each worker to adhere to their religion and beliefs without any prejudice to their employment entitlements (B-Equal.com)

3.3. The Human Rights Act 1998: This came into force in English Law. It gives all workers the right to life, liberty, freedom of association, fair trial, etc. It prohibits torture, slavery, abuse of human rights and discrimination (B-Equal.com)

3.4. Equal Pay Act 1970: Seeks to discourage discrepancies in payment for “like or equal” work on account of sex, race, colour, ethnic group, nationality or national origins (B-Equal.com).

3.5. Disability Discrimination Acts 1995 and 2005:  Protects against recruitment or employment or discrimination on account of ill health, disease or disability.

3.6. Sex Discrimination Act 2005: This serves to “ render unlawful any kind of sex discrimination against individuals in the areas of employment, education and the provision of goods, facilities and services and in the disposal or management of premises.” (B-Equal.com).

3.7. Age Discrimination in Employment Act 1976:  Protects workers from employment discrimination on account of age, and from unjustified retirement.

4.0. THE IMPACT OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITY LEGISLATION ON HR PRACTICE

      In observing that the impact of equal opportunity legislation on HR practice has been mainly “motivational, inspirational and enhancing”, James South (2005) offers clear corroboration of the line of reasoning introduced in section 1.0.  His conclusion was based on a well-designed survey he carried out on a set of sixteen companies and industries which had adopted the Equal Opportunity Legislation each for an average of six years (ibid). The results he got from his comparison of the states of these sixteen organizations before and after they adopted the legislation has made him recommend the adoption of the legislation to all progressive organizations.  The inclusion of the Equal Opportunity Legislation terms in any HR practice can naturally only further it— provided they are objectively included and implemented.

 4.1. IT IS MOTIVATIONAL: The consciousness that the workplace fairness and equity mandated by the legislation was in full force, James South’s survey reveals, was sufficient to increase the motivation of the workers of the sixteen surveyed organizations. It thus motivated HR departments towards the actually achieved state that was envisaged before this legislation terms were adopted. “Their spirits were all uplifted, from all indications, at the formal announcement of and at the first year of full implementation of these legislation terms” (South, 2005). The organizations were multinational and the generality of their workers multi-ethnic; nine of them had multi-racial (African, European and Asian) workers. In contrast to the practices before the introduction and adoption of the terms, racial, sexual and ageist discrimination dropped; were replaced by freedom of expression and greater openness and cooperativeness among and between staff and management.

 4.2. IT IS INPSIRATIONAL: The greater friendliness and openness that developed among workers gave way to a strong tradition of give-and-take.  Ideas, “however seemingly awkward and parochial” (ibid), were aired at HRM team briefings and organizational general meetings. These were often examined and sifted for their applicability to the progress of the organization. “This state was not, of course, achieved overnight and at the same rate for each company and industry” (ibid).  Regular reminders and repeated explanations were often needed to inculcate the rationale of these legislations into workers.

 4.3. IT IS ENHANCING:  Resulting from the engendered greater inspiration and motivation was a general enhanced status and fortune of the sixteen organizations. “Their financial and economic status rose remarkably to the amazement and admiration of observers” (South, 2005). Thus the efforts of the HR departments received undreamt-of support.

5.0. ILLUSTARTIONS

  Three of the surveyed organizations will be briefly considered as business examples illustrating the impact of Equal Opportunity Legislation on HR practice. These are:  K; K Software ventures, South Africa; Dreams and Actualities, a hardware marketing company in Nigeria; and Ever Forward Limited, a defunct Stock Broker Company in Russia.

5.1. K;K SOFTWARE VENTURES:  K; K Software Ventures did not become a considerable HRM organization until 1999, seven years after its establishment (Simphiwe, 2007).  During these years, there was Trade Unionism and interest groups which oversaw the welfare of workers and intervened in critical situations. Trade Unions brought news of the success the active operations in many organizations of Equal Opportunity Legislation to the awareness of   K;K workers who, suffering from many the pressure of many a  K;Ks discriminatory practice, struck for the adoption and implementation of this legislation. They had their way, and the legislation came into full force by 2003:  Ageism gave way to fairer, young-and-old recruitment policies; workplace racial discrimination slowly died away; organizational procedures became more “HRM” in nature—more participatory and less “boss-subordinate”; distribution of emoluments became more just and impartial.

     While these developments raised the economic status of the company, their most remarkable effect was the unprecedented flow of applicants, apparently bewitched towards K ; K for a spell of two years (2003-2005) ( Simphiwe, 2007). This development meant progress for K;K’s HR practices.

5.2. DREAMS AND ACTUALITIES:  The adoption of Equal Opportunity Legislation by Dreams and Actualities came from the recommendations of think-tanks at the year 2000 annual general meeting ( South, 2005).  Recommendations about how workers could be better motivated. Hitherto, workers’ performance had been more half-hearted than consistent and dedicated, protests (peaceful protests) about working conditions from time to time led to industrial actions, and absenteeism and resignations were getting on the increase ( South, 2005).

     The protests and the low morale were found to revolve around the “prejudiced distribution of contracts and perquisites” (ibid). A new set of policies founded upon the Equal Opportunity Legislation was therefore articulated for “trial and experimentation” (ibid). The Employment Equality Regulations Act 2002 was the first to be “tested” and to be implemented with rigorous “overhaul of processes and procedures, prejudiced bureaucracy giving way to simplified equitable procedures that distributed benefits according to merits” ( ibid). The considerable success of this implementation was seen in a drop in absenteeism and protests. Then, followed the implementation of the Race Relations Amendments, which ended ethnic discriminations.

    Other Acts still remain in documented, well-articulated but not yet implemented (South, 2005), apparently because there have been no compelling necessity to do so.

    However, the spirits and commitments of workers have been specially boosted and enhanced. The HR practice of Dreams and Actualities have been uplifted, rendered more workforce-friendly.

5.3. EVER FORWARD LIMITED: The impact of adopting the terms of Equal Opportunity Legislation as the basis of HR policies in Ever Forward Limited has been closely similar to that of K;K Limited. The only significant difference lies in the abolishment of the sexual discrimination tradition that had caused so much protest and clamour from staff members (South, 2005).  There had been a sharp discrimination against women in the award of contracts and here and there in the regularity of the leave and pay benefits distribution.  This anomaly had been managed through the full implementation of the Sex Discrimination Act 2005.

6.0. CONCLUSION

    This writing has been able to demonstrate that Equal opportunity legislation is HRM-friendly.  It has shown that as a compelling force, it drives organizations towards the implementation of central HRM ideas, and emphasizes the need to sustain these ideas in any HR practice.  It ha shown that adopting Equal opportunity legislation as the basis for HRM policies will fuel the furtherance and success of HR practices, provided the policies are fully and fairly implemented.

                                                        References

 Bradford Employment Equality Project—Making it happen through Diversity ;http://www.b-equal.com/legislation.html ;Accessed 24th August, 2008

Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2005

Human Resource Management ; http://www.managementhelp.org/hr_mgmnt/hr_mgmnt.htm; Accessed 26th August, 2008

John B, Jeffrey G, ; BRATTON (2001), Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice.2nd ed. Routledge

South J. (2005) Human Resource Management and Equal Opportunity Legislations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Simphiwe R. (2007) Is Human Resource Management Practical? New York : Harper Perennial

;