Many terms have been used in connection with conceptual contexts for research, including theories, Models, frameworks, schemes and maps. There is some overlap in how these terms are being used, partly because they are used differently by different writers, partly because they are interrelated. Theories The term theory is used in many ways. For example, nursing instructors and students frequently use the term to refer to the content covered in classrooms, as opposed to the actual practice of performing nursing activities. In both lay and scientific usage, the term theory connotes an abstraction.
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In research circles, the term theory used in various ways by different authors. Classically, scientists have used theory to refer to an abstract generalization that offers a systematic explanation about how phenomena are interrelated. The traditional definition requires theory to embody at least two concepts that are related in a manner that the theory purpose is to explain. Others, however, used the term theory less restrictively to refer to a broad characterization of a phenomenon. According to this less restrictive definition, a theory can account for (i. e. , thoroughly described) a single phenomenon.
Some authors specifically refer to this type of theory as descriptive theory. For example, Fawcett (1999) defines descriptive theories as empirically driven theories that “describe or classify specific dimensions or characteristics of individuals, groups, situations, or events by summarizing commonalities found in discrete observations” (p. 15). Descriptive theory plays an especially important role in qualitative studies. Qualitative researchers often strive to develop a conceptualization of the phenomena under study that is grounded in actual observations. Components of Traditional Theory
As traditionally defined, scientific theories involve a series of propositions regarding interrelationships among concepts. The writings of scientific theory include a variety of terms such as proposition, postulate, premise, axiom, law, principle and so forth, some of which are used interchangeably, and others of which introduce subtleties that are too complex. Concepts are the basic building blocks of a theory. Classical theories comprise a set of propositions that indicates relationships among the concepts. Relationships are denoted by such terms as “is associated with”, “varies directly with”, or “is contingent on”.
The propositions form a logically interrelated deductive system. This means that the theory provides a mechanism for logically arriving at new statements from the original propositions. Types of traditional theories Theories differ in their level of generality and abstraction. So called grand theories or macrotheories purport to describe and explain large segments of the human experience. Many theories are more restricted in scope, focusing on a narrow range experience. Such middle-range theories attempt to explain such phenomena as decision making, stress, self care, health promotion and infant attachment.
Conceptual models Conceptual models, conceptual frameworks or conceptual schemes (we use the term interchangeably) represent a less formal attempt at organizing phenomena than theories. Conceptual models, like theories, deal with abstractions (concept) that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme. What is absent from conceptual models is the deductive system of propositions that assert and explain relationships among concepts. Conceptual models provide a perspective regarding interrelated phenomena, but are more loosely structured than theories.
A conceptual model broadly presents an understanding of a phenomenon of interest and reflects the assumptions and philosophic views of model’s designer. Conceptual models can serve as springboards for generating research hypotheses. Conceptual framework consists of concepts that are placed within a logical and sequential design. It represents a less formal structure and used for studies in which existing theory is inapplicable or insufficient. It based on specific concepts and propositions that derived from empirical observation and intuition. Schematic models
The term model is often used in connection with symbolic representations of a conceptualization. There are many references in the research literature to schematic models. Schematic models are visual representations of some aspect of reality; like conceptual models and theories, they use concepts as building blocks, but with minimal use of words. A visual or symbolic representation of theory or conceptual framework often helps to express abstract ideas in a concise and readily understandable form. Schematic models, which are common in both qualitative and quantitative research, represent phenomena graphically.
Concepts and linkages between them are represented through the use of boxes, arrows, or other symbols. Frameworks A framework is the overall conceptual underpinning of a study. Not every study is based on formal theory or conceptual model, but every study has a framework – a theoretical rationale. In a study based on a theory, the framework is referred to as the theoretical framework; in a study that has its roots in a specified conceptual model, the framework is often called the conceptual framework (although the terms conceptual; framework and theoretical framework are frequently used interchangeably).
It is described as the abstract, logical structure of meaning that guide the development of the study. All the frameworks are based on the identification of key concepts and the relationships among concepts. Waltz, Strickland and Lenz (2005) described a five-step process for developing conceptual (theoretical) definitions. These steps include (1) developing a preliminary definition, (2) reviewing relevant literature, (3) developing or identifying exemplars, (4) mapping the concept’s meaning, and (5) stating the developed conceptual definition. Functions of theoretical framework in research: It provides the general framework which can guide the data analysis * It identifies the variable to be measures * It explains why one variable can possibly affect another or why the independent variable can possibly influence the dependent variable * It limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables * It stipulates in analyzing and interpreting data * Not all research studies need a theoretical framework, but correlational and casual studies do. Constructs * Concepts specified in such away they are observable in the real world * Invented
Variables * Concepts that is observable and measurable * Have a dimension that can vary * Narrow in meaning Conceptual models (conceptual frameworks or conceptual schemes) They represent a less formal attempt in organizing phenomena than theories. It deals with abstractions (concepts) that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme. It broadly presents understanding of the phenomenon of interest and reflects the assumptions and philosophic views of the model’s designer. Example: Orem’s self-care model, Swanson’s theory of caring Function Theory Provides Structure for interpretation of findings •Means for summarizing and explaining observations for an isolated study •Source to generate hypothesis •Framework for guiding research •Guide for selecting appropriate method •Basis to describe, explain or predict factors influencing nursing outcomes Deductive and Inductive Research Approach Deductive research approach allows the research to establish a hypothesis by using theory. Variety of data and information is collected by the researcher to confirm or reject the hypothesis to resolve issue (Gill and Johnson 2010).
In the given figure, various steps of using deductive approach are development of theory, hypothesis, observation through data and information and confirmation. On the other hand, inductive approach is totally reverse form deductive approach. Observation, pattern, tentative hypothesis and theory (see figure) are important steps of the inductive approach. Inductive research is a flexible approach because there is no requirement of pre-determined theory to collect data and information.
The researcher uses observe data and facts to reach at tentative hypothesis and define a theory as per the research problem. This helps the research to give inductive arguments (Mertens 2008). Figure: Deductive Vs. Inductive Approach (Trochim 2011) The deductive research approach is based on the general idea to reach at the specific situation and it is linked with the positivism paradigm, whereas, inductive approach works over a specific idea to generalize the situation as per the research topic, which is linked with the interpretivism paradigm (Crowther and Lancaster 2009).
Inductive approach is highly associated with the interpretivism philosophy. Inductive approach allows the researcher to provide subjective reasoning with the help of various real life examples (Ridenour, Benz and Newman 2008). Deductive approach is linked with the positivism philosophy, which include hypothesis to prove assumptions. In this kind of approach it is necessary for the researcher to be general, but this research issue is specific and related to the development of human resources in the organization (Ritchie and Lewis 2003).
