Sensitive Mothering

In this essay I will attempt to discuss the concept of ‘sensitive mothering’ as being vital to the social and emotional development of a child. In doing so I will discuss various developmental theories to a child’s development and discuss the concepts of ‘attachment theory’ encompassing ‘internal working model’ and ‘quality attachment’ of John Bowlby. I shall also discuss the eight stages contemplated in Erikson’s psychosocial development and the impact attachment has on the social and emotional development of an individual.

Ainsworth (1969) believed that ‘sensitive mothering’ is an important element in the development of a satisfactory mother-baby attachment (MCI Module, undated). The term ‘sensitive mothering’ refers to someone who is responsive emotionally and physically available for her child and is cooperative with her/him, someone who provides the child a ‘secure base’ (Ainsworth 1969) to explore the world. (MCI Module, undated). Mothers who were highly responsive and available to their children were more likely to have infants who developed more harmonious relationships with their mothers.

Mothers who were sensitive, their children were more sympathetic, more compliant with adults and less likely to develop behavioural problems. Sensitive mothering in the first year of life is thought to predict the quality of the mother-infant attachment. On the other hand, mothers who were insensitive, rejecting, under involved were more likely to have infants who develop an insecure bond. The mother-infant relationship is thought to set the tone for all future relationships. The most famous attachment theorist was John Bowlby.

He argued, “The need for attachment was an instinctive biological need and that mother-love in infancy and childhood was as important for mental health as are vitamins and protein for physical health” (Macleod-Brudenell ; Kay, 2008, p. 99). According to Bowlby, many aspects of our personality are formed during our infant and adult years where we experience a constant round of close relationships with parents, family and friends. The kind of adult we become is not only a product of our biological nature, but also the results of interactions we have with the people around us.

The core principle behind Bowlby’s theory was that the formation of a stable, healthy attachment with a caregiver in the early years of life is the key for an infant’s future emotional, social and cognitive development. He explained that this primary attachment relationship develops because infants need a mechanism to ensure survival. Attachment is therefore an adaptive behaviour that ensures the infant receives food, security and a safe base from which to explore the world.

His research with juvenile offenders found that 40% of them had been separated for a prolonged period from their mothers in the early years of their lives therefore a stable attachment bond was not formed. Bowlby (1969) also proposed that children who grew up in orphanages were unable to love because they had not had the opportunity to form a solid attachment to a mother –figure early in life. His work led him to suggest that this bonding process begins at birth and is well under way by about 6 months of age.

During this time, infants typically attach themselves to their primary caregiver. From about 7 to 9 months, a young child separated from an attachment figure will be quite upset and engage in frequent crying. Fear of strangers is another common behaviour during this period. From around 2 years of age, they begin to develop relationships with the attached person that are more complex and start to recognize the goals and plans of the attached adults. Bowlby (in Barnes 1995) described the attachment bond as ‘monotropic’, that is, it is established between an infant and one other person.

Whilst other relationships are formed these are qualitatively different from the primary attachment relationship and do not have the same impact on later emotional development. This bond develops from around seven months of age, around the time an infant learns to crawl. He was inspired by Lorenz’s (1966) studies of imprinting in baby geese. He found that a young ducking or gosling learns to follow the first conspicuous, moving object it sees within the first few days after hatching. Another theorist Bowlby was strongly influenced by was Harlow.

Harlow (1958) performed a study with infant rhesus monkeys by isolating them shortly after birth. Some died, others were frightened and behaved in an abnormal manner. All their theories suggested that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them survive. The determinant of attachment is not food but care and responsiveness. Gradually an infant will develop a model about emotional relationships. The inner representation of this parent-child bond becomes an important part of personality.

It serves as an ‘internal working model’ (Bowlby 1969), or set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, the likelihood of receiving support from them during times of stress, and the interaction with those figures. A child whose internal working model of the caregiver is focused on rejection is expected to think of himself as unlovable, unworthy and flawed. This image becomes the basis for all future close relationships during infancy, childhood, adolescence and adult life. The internal working models concept, as a mediator of attachment-related experience, is the cornerstone of attachment theory.

Mary Ainsworth (1969) did an experiment known as the ‘Strange Situation’ test to find a way to develop a reliable method of measuring quality of attachment. This measured the level of attachment between the infant and the primary caregiver. She noted three distinct patterns in the babies’ reaction. One group of infants protested and cried on separation, but when the mother returned, they greeted her with pleasure and were easy to console. She labelled this group ‘securely attached’/ Type A. The second group of infants was characterized by a lack of distress during parental separation, and avoidance of the parent upon return.

This group was called ‘insecurely attached and avoidant/ Type A. The third group was labelled ambivalent/ anxiously attached / Type C, and tended to be clingy from the beginning and afraid to explore the room. They became terribly anxious upon separation, yet displayed angry and resistive behaviour upon the parents return. It turned out that secure attachment was significantly co-related with maternal sensitivity. Babies of sensitive mothers tended to be securely attached, whereas babies of less sensitive mothers were more likely to be classified as insecure.

Erikson is best known for his theory of eight stages of Psychosocial Development. His theory spans the entire life cycle as opposed to only the first years of life, which many believed was when personality development ended. Each of the eight stages build upon the others and centres on a specific crisis or challenge that must be fixed during that stage in order to move effectively onto the next stage of development. The first stage is called the Basic trust versus Basic mistrust.

This phase is characterized by the individual’s complete and utter dependence on the primary caregiver. On their benevolence rests the satisfaction of his needs and the comfort of his existence” (Stevens, 1983, p. 43). If the needs are ignored, pessimism results and the individual develop expecting the worst. In this first and very crucial year, the concept of self and the world is developed. “The qualities and notion of basic trust develop based on an association between feeling of comfort and consistencies in the external world” (Stevens, 1983, p. 43). If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.

Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. The second stage is called Autonomy versus Shame and doubt (1-3 years) and occurs when the child begins to explore things and make choices. Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process and learning to control ones body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. The third stage is Initiative versus Guilt (3-5 years). During this stage, children begin to assert their power and control through directing play and other social interaction. It is important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to help children make appropriate choices. If a caregiver is dismissive or discouraging, the child starts to feel ashamed and becomes overly dependent on others.

Industry versus inferiority (6-11) is the fourth stage and is vital in the development of self-confidence. School and social interaction play an important role during this time as children receive praise and attention for performing various tasks such as reading, writing, drawing and problem solving. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Identity versus role confusion is the fifth stage and occurs during adolescence (12 -19).

This stage is important in forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will be insecure and confused about themselves and the future. The sixth stage is Intimacy versus isolation and takes place during adulthood. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.

Those successful at this step develop relationships that are committed and secure. He believed that each stage of development built on the previous stages and therefore it was imperative for a sense of strong identity to develop long lasting relationships. The seventh stage is Generativity versus Stagnation (25 to 50). During this time individuals continue to build their lives, focusing on their career and family. Those who are successful feel they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

The eighth and final stage of Integrity versus Despair occurs during late adulthood and is focused on reflecting back on life. Those unsuccessful during this phase feel that their life has been wasted and will experience regret. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. A young child’s social and emotional development is largely dependent on the emotional well being of his or her parents. Parents who have had positive life experiences are better equipped to be emotionally available and responsive to a young child than parents who have not.

This responsive relationship between the young child and parents supports healthy development in communication, cognition, social-emotional competence, and moral understanding. To measure attachment in adults, an Adult Attachment Interview was designed by Main (1984), which yielded four main patterns. As adults, those who are securely attached tend to have trusting, long-term relationships. They have high self-esteem, enjoy intimate relationships and have an ability to share feelings with other people.

As adults, those with ambivalent attachment style often feel reluctant about becoming close to others and worry that their partner does not reciprocate their feelings. Avoidant attachment is when adults tend to have difficulty with close relationships and do not invest much emotion in them. Main and Goldwyn (1984) proposed that inconsistent behaviour on the part of parents might be a contributing factor in the Disorganized attachment style. ‘The adults may still be so preoccupied with unresolved issues from the past that it is difficult to meet the needs of their own children’ (MCI Module, undated).

A child’s early experience of being nurtured and developing a bond with a caring adult affects all aspects of behaviour and development. When parents and children have strong, warm feelings for one another, children develop trust that their parents will provide what they need to thrive, including love, acceptance, positive guidance and protection. The environment provided by the child’s primary caregivers has tremendous impact on all aspects of child’s early development as well as his/her later life. It is this early experience that develops from the early mother-child relationship.

This relationship determines the type of attachment between mother and the child. Healthy parent-child attachment leads to positive impacts and have long-term effects on child’s developmental outcomes. Conversely, repeated rejection, inconsistency in emotion and carelessness on the part of primary caregiver towards the child are factors that lead to maladjustment in attachment development.