Historical Background of Victimology Essay

I. Introduction

The nature and extent of victimization is non adequately understood across the universe. Millions of people throughout the universe suffer injury as a consequence of offense. the maltreatment of power. terrorist act and other blunt bad lucks. Their rights and demands as victims of this injury have non been adequately recognized. The UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power in 1985. This provides a cosmopolitan benchmark by which advancement can be assessed in run intoing the demands of victims of offense and maltreatment of power. Much advancement has been made since 1985 chiefly by authoritiess in Western Europe. North America and elsewhere. They have implemented programmes and Torahs to give consequence to those basic rules but even in flush states much work remains. Extra resources are needed everyplace particularly for states that are developing and in passage.

The convention on multinational organized offense includes a specific subdivision to protect the rights of victims as does the optional protocol on trafficking. By June. 2005. 99 states had already ratified the Statute of Rome that establishes a lasting International Criminal Court which gives consequence to the rules in the Declaration. The rights of the victims of offense and maltreatment of power are still non adequately recognized in any portion of the universe. Their households. informants and others. who aid them. are still unjustly subjected to loss. harm or hurt. They excessively frequently suffer adversity when helping in the prosecution of wrongdoers.

The recent UN Congress in Bangkok besides drew attending to the victims of terrorist act. Victims of blunt bad lucks such as natural catastrophes. accidents and diseases portion similar injury. loss and agony. Servicess to run into the demands of victims have much in common between victims of offense. maltreatment of power and blunt bad lucks. Action must be taken to progress research. services and consciousness for victims across the universe. This requires individuals committed to these ideals. better services. more research. advanced instruction and preparation and continued protagonism and rights. It requires a procedure of measuring advancement and moving to do the necessary betterments.

II. Discussion

I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGY

A. The Early Rootss

The word “victim” has its roots in many ancient linguistic communications that covered a great distance from northwesterly Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar lingual form: victima in Latin ; vih. weoh. wig in Old European ; wih. wihi in Old High German ; ve in Old Norse ; weihs in Gothic ; and. vinak Ti in Sanskrit ( Webster’s 1971 ) .

Victimology as an academic term contains two elements:

• One is the Latin word “Victima” which translates into “victim” . • The other is the Grecian word “logos” which means a system of cognition. the way of something abstract. the way of learning. scientific discipline. and a subject. Although Hagiographas about the victim appeared in many early plants by such criminologists as Beccaria ( 1764 ) . Lombroso ( 1876 ) . Ferri ( 1892 ) . Garofalo ( 1885 ) . Sutherland ( 1924 ) . Hentig ( 1948 ) . Nagel ( 1949 ) . Ellenberger ( 1955 ) . Wolfgang ( 1958 ) and Schafer ( 1968 ) . the construct of a scientific discipline to analyze victims and the word “victimology” had its beginning with the early Hagiographas of Beniamin Mendelsohn ( 1937 ; 1940 ) . these taking to his seminal work where he really proposed the term “victimology” in his article “A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science. Victimology” ( 1956 ) .

It was in this article that he suggested the constitution of an international society of victimology which has come to fruition with the creative activity of the World Society of Victimology. the constitution of a figure of victimological institutes ( including the creative activity in Japan of the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute ) ; and. the constitution of international diaries which are now besides a portion of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with his victimology vision and design ; and. as his adherent we have followed his counsel. We now refer to Mendelsohn as “The Father of Victimology” .

B. Critical Dates in Victimology

• 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology text edition. • 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his Hagiographas on the raper and his victim. • 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and condemnable interactions. • 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term “victimology” in a Gallic diary. • 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim. • 1949 Frederic Wertham foremost used the word “victimology” in a book Show of Violence. • 1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London Times. • 1958 Marvin Wolfgang surveies homicide victims ; uses the term “victim precipitation” . • 1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act. • 1965 California is the first province in the USA to get down Victim Compensation. • 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law.

• 1966 USA starts to study offense victims non reported to the constabulary • 1967 Canada creates a Condemnable Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland. • 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal. • 1972 The first three victim aid programmes are created in St. Louis. Missouri. San Francisco. California and in Washington. D. C. • 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem. Israel. • 1974 the first police-based victim advocator undertaking started in Fort Lauderdale. Florida. USA. • 1975 The first “Victim Rights’ Week” is organized by the Philadelphia District Attorney. * Associate Professor. Criminology Department. California State University. Fresno ; Director. Tokiwa International Victimology Institute. Tokiwa University Victimology Graduate School. Japan. Pennsylvania. USA. • 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organization of Victim Assistance ( NOVA ) in Fresno. California. USA.

• 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly diary devoted to victimology. • 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno. California. USA. • 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster. Germany. • 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers ( MADD ) is founded by Candi Lightner after one of her twin girls was killed by a rummy driver who was a repetition wrongdoer. • 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims’ Rights Week in April. • 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel established by MADD to educate rummy drivers about how their victims suffered. started in Rutland. Massachusetts. USA. • 1984 The Victims of Crime Act ( VOCA ) establishes the national Crime Victims Fund from federal offense mulcts to pay for province victim compensation and services. • 1985 The United Nations nem con adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.

• 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource Centre in Rockville. Maryland. • 1988 The first “Indian States: Justice for Victims of Crime” conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City. South Dakota. USA. • 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national organisations in Europe working for victims of offense in advisory position with the Council of Europe and the UN. • 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime print the Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.

• 2002 On 11 April. 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & A ; went into force on 1 July at which clip the International Criminal Court became effectual and it included the creative activity of a Victim and Witness Unit. • 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute. in Mito Japan opened its doors to advance victim rights. to carry on seminars. classs. print an international diary. and host one-year symposia and talks and research about victimology. • 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its one-year Executive Committee meeting in Orlando. Florida adopts a dramatic new strategic program to perpetrate itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration.

• 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national statute law by following a new cardinal jurisprudence for offense victims. To guarantee that the rules would be initiated. the Prime Minister established a cabinet degree commission. The new jurisprudence includes services for victims. damages from the wrongdoer. information about condemnable justness and a right to officially take part in the condemnable justness procedure.

C. Victim Assistance

Since the mid 1970s victim aid programmes in America had to get by with the realisation that this new field did non hold a professional corps of people with particular preparation in covering with offense victims. Those who were working in the programmes were a mixture of medical physicians. curates. head-shrinkers. psychologists. societal workers. nurses. on-the-job trained counselors. individuals outside the assisting professions and voluntaries with all degrees of preparation. There were no international or national professional criterions. There was no certification or grade to fix person to make the work of assisting victims recover. However. before formal victim aid programmes evolved. there were some people trained to work with victim jobs. particularly people who had been assisting kid maltreatment and household force victims. These were societal workers.

Today. the victim services scene has changed. There are a broad array of professionals and non-professionals working with victims. These would include: societal workers. psychologists. head-shrinkers. nurses. medical physicians. non-specific professionals ( who received their formal grades in other Fieldss but were trained to assist victims in the legion preparation schools which are both portion and independent of academic scenes ) ; and. voluntaries ( who besides received their preparation in the legion preparation schools which are both portion and independent of academic scenes. many of which are 40 hr preparation faculties offered by the victim service bureaus where they work ) .

Today the field of victim aid is the major calling field in victimology for individuals desiring to assist victims of offense straight. The individual largest and oldest university offering a bachelor’s grade in victimology and a victim services certification is the California State University. Fresno. Worldwide. it can be estimated that there are about 20. 000 victim service programmes now runing: cut downing agony and facilitating recovery.

II. KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGY

A. Concepts

1. “Victim” has it roots in the early spiritual impressions of enduring. forfeit and decease. This construct of “victim” was good known in the ancient civilisations. particularly in Babylonia. Palestine. Greece. and Rome. In each of these civilisations the jurisprudence mandated that the victim should be recognized as a individual who deserved to be made whole once more by the wrongdoer. 2. “Crime victim” is a individual who has been physically. financially or emotionally injured and/or had their belongings taken or damaged by person perpetrating a offense. 3. “Victimogenesis” refers to the beginning or cause of a victimization ; the configuration of variables which caused a victimization to happen. 4. “Victim Precipitation” a victimization where the victim causes. in portion or wholly. their ain victimization. 5. “Vulnerability” is a physical. psychological. societal. stuff or fiscal status whereby a individual or an object has a failing which could render them a victim if another individual or individuals would acknowledge these failings and take advantage of them. 6. “General Victim” is a individual who has been physically. financially or emotionally injured and/or had their belongings taken or damaged by person. an event. an organisation or a natural phenomenon.

7. “Victimization” refers to an event where individuals. communities and establishments are damaged or injured in a important manner. Those individuals who are impacted by individuals or events suffer a misdemeanor of rights or important break of their well being. 8. “Victimology” is an academic scientific subject which surveies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events taking to the victimization. the victim’s experience. its wake and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore. victimology includes the survey of the precursors. exposures. events. impacts. recoveries. and responses by people. organisations and civilizations related to victimizations.

9. “Abuse of Power” is the misdemeanor of a national or international criterion in the usage of organized powerful forces such that individuals are injured physically. mentally. emotionally. economically. or in their rights. as a direct and knowing consequence of the misapplication of these forces. 10. “Victim Aid. Support or Services” are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the purpose of alleviating agony and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information. appraisals. single intercessions. instance protagonism. system protagonism. public policy and programme development.

11. “Victim Recovery” is the recommencement of the same or better degree of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their degree of mental wellness and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently. victimization affects each individual in a different manner and causes differing grades of hurt or injury. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first attempt to recover their old degree of working plus larn from their bad luck and hopefully exceed their old degree of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a individual has at least regained their anterior degree of well-being and at best. has exceeded it. This province may be measured by placing their old mental status and finding if they have at least regained that anterior position utilizing the standards of: trust in others. liberty of ego. single enterprise. competence in day-to-day activities. self-identity. interpersonal familiarity. control over personal state of affairss. successful relationships. safety in day-to-day activities. recognition of memory. injury symptoms have become manageable. ego regard is restored. resourcefulness is achieved. and there is an improved ability to guard off possible menaces.

12. “Child Abuse” is the knowing application of sexual. physical. emotional or psychological hurt to a kid to include disregard at the custodies of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their household or topographic point of attention. 13. “Victim Offender Mediation” ( VOM ) is a formal procedure for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained go-between between a victim of a offense and his/her wrongdoer who committed that offense. This is besides called victim-offender duologue. victim-offender conferencing. victim-offender rapprochement. or renewing justness. Often the victim and the wrongdoer are joined by their several households and community members or other individuals related to the offense event. In these meetings. the wrongdoer and the victim talk to each other about the victimization. the effects it had on their lives. and their feelings about it. The purpose is to make a reciprocally agreeable program to mend any harm or hurt that occurred as a consequence of the offense in the hopes of for good extinguishing the struggle that caused the offense in the first topographic point.

14. “Restorative Justice” is a systematic formal legal response to offense victimization that emphasizes mending the hurts that resulted from the offense and affected the victims. wrongdoers and communities. This procedure is a going from the traditional retaliatory signifier of covering with felons and victims which traditionally have by and large perpetuated the struggle which resulted in the original offense. 15. “Victim Trauma” includes emotional and physical experiences that produce hurting and hurts. Emotional hurt is a normal response to an highly unnatural event. It consequences from the coupling of a painful or awful emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long permanent consequence on the life of a individual. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event. the higher the hazard for emotional injury and drawn-out effects. 16. “Crisis Intervention” is the proviso of exigency psychological attention to traumatized victims so as to assist them return to an adaptative degree of working and to forestall or extenuate the negative impact of psychological and emotional injury.

17. “Compensation” is a formal administrative process provided by jurisprudence which provides merely money to victims for “out of pocket” existent disbursals straight ensuing from the victimization to be paid by the province after the victim is found to measure up harmonizing to specific standards determined by the several province or federal jurisprudence. 18. “Restitution” is a formal judicial process used by a justice after guilt is determined as portion of a sentence which can supply money and/or services to the victim for amendss or enduring which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the wrongdoer.

19. “Victim Survey” is a periodic information aggregation and analysis procedure conducted normally by a authorities entity within the general population to analyze information about offense victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the constabulary or non. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview ( or sent questionnaire ) and covers demographics. attitudes about offense and inside informations about the victimizations experienced over the old six months. 20. “Victim Rights” are privileges and processs required by written jurisprudence which warrant victims specific considerations and intervention by the condemnable justness system. the authorities and the community at big.

B. Maltreatment of Power

1. Background

In malice of the legal countenances which exist throughout the universe to forestall the maltreatment of power ( AOP ) . it continues to happen with turning frequence and comparative impunity. There are basically five considerations to mistreat of power: the type of maltreater ; the specific maltreater ; the method used ; the victims ; and the extent of hurt and harm. In each of these five considerations there are legion illustrations runing from the Government of South Africa’s usage of apartheid on Black South Africans doing extended decease and agony. to the condemnable organisation known as the MAFIA which uses racketeering. coercion. bullying. transplant and corruptness on guiltless citizens doing extended decease. agony and belongings loss.

The most recent illustration of AOP is the authorities of Yugoslavia ( now dominated by cultural Serbs ) utilizing utmost signifiers of aggression. against Croats. Bosnia Muslims. and most late cultural Kosovans with: mass violent deaths ; mass rapes ; extended devastation of belongings ; edifices. and sacred cultural symbols. for the most portion disregarding the protocols found in the Geneva Conventions for the behavior of warfare. This macro criminological/victimological phenomenon has been extensively reported on by the media and by bookmans. but preponderantly in narrative signifier. Therefore far. really few efforts have been made to insulate the cardinal variables. explicate the kineticss of these events and mensurate their happenings.

2. Theoretical Problem

Like all phenomena. these maltreatment of power events lend themselves to definitions. theoretical organisation and measuring. The magnitude of these happenings dramatically turn our caputs off from the cold-eyed rating of the facts. The play of these events is so compelling. even trained theoreticians put aside their research tools and output to the subjective descriptions which overwhelm those chronicling these monolithic maltreatments. In malice of the strong emotions. the magnitude of the job calls for careful measuring. analysis and synthesis so that a grade of apprehension can emerge. This proposal will see utilizing the societal behavioural and struggle theories familiar to most criminologist who study macro criminological phenomena.

III. MEASURING VICTIMIZATION

A. The Importance and Limitations of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is chiefly concerned with by and large qualifying a phenomenon to find basic information about sum. frequences and classs of a peculiar subject. Therefore. one of the basic types of informations in descriptive research is nominal degree informations or the numeration of “apples and oranges” . The most of import type of victimological descriptive research are victimization studies. These studies have therefore far go the anchor of victimology information.

Not merely do these studies give us the figure and types of victims. they besides give us tendency information so that we can compare victims from one legal power to another. from one type of victim to another. and we can mensurate the rate of victimization for a given population in a given clip period. Another of import measuring utilizing study research is the measuring of behaviors that exist as continua. These types of research give us information about the feelings. sentiments and responses the victims have. Therefore. they are really of import in understanding the impact of victimization and the advancement of recovery.

1. The Necessity of Evaluative Research

Another of import type of research is the appraising research used to mensurate the official authorities or organisational responses to victimization and the programmes used to assist victims get by. These types of research are aimed at mensurating the systemic facets of the victim experience. This is normally focused on the “Twin Criteria of Success” : effectivity. which evaluates the accomplishment of programme aims ; and. efficiency which evaluates the ingestion of resources over the clip needed to accomplish aims.

Another facet of appraising research is answerability. both economic and political. Economic answerability focuses on whether the being of a peculiar programme in a given community is justified given the financess available and the ethic presently in being. Political answerability focuses on whether the being of a victim programme and its costs are supported by those in power. A big portion of answerability has to make with community values. outcome outlooks and official duties. The measuring of these variables helps to socially contextualize a victim programme or response within the larger society or civilization.

2. Explaining the Victimization with Causal Research

Possibly the most ambitious and hard signifier of victimological research is causal research. This research attempts to explicate why and how some variables are effected by other variables in those phenomena covering with victims. For illustration. it might seek to understand why some victims are badly traumatized by an event. while other victims are non earnestly impacted by the same event. The usual method of this signifier of research is to first create hypotheses about the relationships between cause variables and consequence variables. Then. to mensurate these variables and see if the information can back up the hypotheses.

Ultimately. this procedure can take to understanding non merely one insouciant nexus. but many connected causal links. or a causal concatenation. A victimologist can so develop a theoretical statement with the new facts uncovered utilizing causal research. These theoretical statements help to understand complex societal and psychological victim phenomenon. Consequently individuals working to forestall victimization could hold through empirical observation derived facts so as to cut down the exposure of possible victims. Crisis interveners could efficaciously cut down the agony of victims instantly after the victimization and forestall the escalation of injury. Advocates and healers. establishing their response on protocol analysis. could better cognize what works to ease victim recovery and cut down or extinguish long-run agony and advance the return to stable and functional lives for those victimized.

IV. THE FUTURE OF VICTIMOLOGY

A. Promising Practices

As new programmes and new Torahs evolve some prove effectual and others non. In the hunt for programmes and Torahs that fulfil the cardinal purposes of the United National Declaration. “to be treated with compassion and regard for their self-respect. to be provided with entree to the mechanisms of justness and to motivate damages to be informed of their rights. to be informed of their function and the range. timing and advancement of the proceedings and of the temperament of their instance. to be provided with proper aid throughout the legal procedure. to hold their privateness protected and insure their safety. to be considered for reception of damages. to be informed about having compensation. ”

These standards determine the value of programmes and Torahs so that they can be evaluated and finally recommended as worthy of duplicate. In each of the sub-categories of victim programmes. Torahs. patterns and rights. specific illustrations have become known. Some of these are listed below ( from the New Directions from the Field: Victims’ Rights and Services for the twenty-first Century. U. S. Department of Justice. 1998 ) .

1. Law Enforcement

• In San Diego. California there is a partnership between the constabulary and the YWCA which resulted in a Community Domestic Violence Resource Network. This has resulted in a major resource for all the constabulary bureaus in the community for accurate information about the handiness of shelters at any given clip. • In Provo. Utah victims take part in offense resolution. called “victim-assisted” probes. • In Orange County. California a group of five victim advocators working together in a non-profit programme work with constabularies and prosecuting officers to guarantee comprehensive services for victims of pack force.

2. Prosecution

• In Kenosha. Wisconsin. a programme established by the territory lawyer established particular prosecution units for domestic force and sensitive offenses. • In Pinellas County. Florida. the state’s attorney’s office established a particular prosecuting officer to be responsible for all elder development and neglect instances. This includes police preparation. community outreach and instruction for other prosecuting officers. • In Philadelphia. Pennsylvania. the Victim Services Unit located in the District Attorney’s Office. employs Vietnamese and Kampuchean victim-witness coordinators to help victims from Southeast Asia throughout their instance procedure. including interpreting information and assisting victims with exigency medical and fiscal aid.

3. Judiciary

• In Tucson. Arizona. the Municipal Court established a partnership with the constabulary. victim advocators. prosecuting officers and wellness attention professionals to organize a Community Domestic Violence Awareness Centre. • In New York State. the Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children was established to supply aid to kids in the tribunals so as to supply a particular infinite for kid attention so that those kids whose parents are in tribunal have a safe oasis during their stay. • In Santa Clara County. California. the tribunals have established local household force councils to supply a comprehensive response to domestic force.

4. Correctionss

• In Texas. the Department of Criminal Justice started a victim-offender mediation/dialogue programme for victims of terrible force and their incarcerated wrongdoers. • In California one of the best known victim-offender programmes is the Impact of Crime on Victims ( IOC ) initiated by the California Youth Authority. This programme is aimed at supplying 40 hours of instruction to inform wrongdoers about how offenses affect victims and society. • The US Federal Bureau of Prisons piloted victim consciousness categories on drug and domestic force offenses for wrongdoers in halfway houses in Baltimore. Maryland. and Tampa. Florida. B. World of Promising Practices

Although a broad assortment of new programmes have been tried and dubbed as “promising” most of these have non been subjected to any signifier of empirical rating. Before these programme can be accepted as worthy of duplicate. they must be carefully scrutinized over a sufficient clip period.

V. Demographic Characteristics

The hazard of going a offense victim varies as a map of demographic variables such as:
• Gender
• Age
• Race
• Socioeconomic category

Gender

With the exclusion of sexual assault and domestic force. work forces have higher hazard of assault than adult females ( Gelles & A ; Straus. 1988 ; Hanson et Al. . 1993 ; Norris. 1992 ) . Lifetime hazard of homicide is three to four times higher for work forces than adult females ( Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1992 ) .

Age

Adolescents have well higher rates of assault than immature grownups or older Americans ( Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1992 ; Hanson et Al. . 1993 ; Kilpatrick. Edmunds & A ; Seymour. 1992 ; Kilpatrick et Al. . in imperativeness ; Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ; Whitaker & A ; Bastian. 1991 ) . Datas from the National Crime Victimization Survey indicate that 12-to-19 twelvemonth olds are two to three times every bit likely as those over 20 to go victims of personal offense each twelvemonth ( Whitaker & A ; Bastian. 1991 ) . Datas from The National Women’s Study indicate that 62 % of all physical colza instances occurred when the victim was under 18 old ages of age ( Kilpatrick et al. . 1992 ) .

Race

Racial and cultural minorities have higher rates of assault than other Americans ( FBI Uniform Crime Report. 1992 ; Hanson et Al. . 1993 ; Kilpatrick et Al. . 1991 ; Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ) . In 1990. African-Americans were six times more likely than white Americans to be homicide victims ( FBI Uniform Crime Report. 1992 ) . Ratess of violent assault are about twice every bit high for African- and Hispanic-Americans compared to White Americans ( Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ) . Kilpatrick et Al. ( 1991 ) found that African-Americans ( 28 % ) and Hispanic-Americans ( 30 % ) were significantly more likely than White Americans ( 19 % ) to hold of all time been violent victims of offense.

Socioeconomic Class

Violence disproportionately affects those from lower socioeconomic categories ( U. S. Bureau of the Census. 1991 ) . Family income is related to rates of force and victimization. with lower income households at a higher hazard than those from higher income brackets ( Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ) . • For illustration. in 1988. the hazard of victimization was 2. 5 times greater for households with the lowest incomes ( under $ 7. 500 ) compared to those with the highest ( $ 50. 000 and over ) ( Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ) .

Using longitudinal informations from The National Women’s Study. Kilpatrick et Al. . ( in imperativeness ) found that adult females with family incomes less than $ 10. 000 had odds 1. 8 times greater than those with incomes of $ 10. 000 or more of going a colza or aggravated assault victim in the two twelvemonth follow-up period. Poverty increased the hazard of assault even after commanding for the effects of anterior victimization and esthesis seeking. However. some other surveies report that household income is a less of import forecaster of victimization than gender. age. or ethnicity ( Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ) .

Interpreting Demographic Characteristic Data

Some of the conflicting findings about demographic features as hazard factors for violent offense are attributable to methodological fluctuations across surveies. Another ground for conflicting findings is that many demographic variables are confounded. That is. they are so interconnected as to do some trouble in dividing out their comparative parts. Demographic variables of age. gender. and racial position all tend to be confounded with income: immature people tend to be poorer than older people ; adult females tend to hold less income than work forces ; and African americans tend to hold less income than white Americans.

Repeat Victimization and the Cycle of Violence

Until late. there was small grasp of the extent to which many people are victims of offense non merely one time. but several times during their life-time. There was sufficient apprehension of how perennial victimization increases the hazard for and complexness of crime-related psychological injury. Nor did we understand the extent to which victimization increases the hazard of farther victimization and/or of violent behaviour by the victim. Several surveies show that a significant proportion of offense victims has been victimized more than one time and that a history of victimization increases the hazard of subsequent violent assault ( e. g. Kilpatrick et Al. . in imperativeness ; Koss & A ; Dinero. 1989 ; Resnick. Kilpatrick. Dansky. Saunders & A ; Best. 1993 ; Kilpatrick et Al. . 1992 ; Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ; Wyatt. Guthrie & A ; Notgrass. 1992 ; Zawitz. 1983 ) .

Other research suggests that the hazard of developing PTSD and substance use/abuse jobs is higher among repetition victims of violent assault than among those who have experienced merely one violent assault ( e. g. . Kilpatrick et Al. . in imperativeness ; Breslau et Al. . in imperativeness ; Kilpatrick. Resnick. Saunders. Best & A ; Epstein. 1994 ) . Still other grounds suggests that young person victimization history additions hazard of engagement with delinquent equals and of subsequent delinquent behaviour ( Ageton. 1983 ; Dembo et Al. . 1992 ; Straus. 1984 ; Widom. 1989. 1992 ) . Some research shows that engagement with delinquent or aberrant equals increases the hazard of victimization ( e. g. . Ageton. 1983 ) . and that substance usage besides increases hazard of victimization ( e. g. . Kilpatrick et Al. . 1994 ; Cottler. Compton. Mager. Spitznagel. and Janca. 1992 ) .

Another line of research has found that a history of kid maltreatment and disregard additions hazard of delinquent behaviour during childhood and adolescence and of being arrested for violent assault as an grownup ( e. g. . Widom. 1989. 1994 ) . This new cognition about repetition victimization and the rhythm of force has several deductions for appropriate mental wellness guidance for offense victims: • Mental wellness professionals should include offense bar and substance maltreatment bar in their work with victims to diminish the hazard that new victimization or substance maltreatment jobs will happen ( e. g. . Kilpatrick et Al. . in imperativeness ; Kilpatrick et Al. . 1994 ) . • Mental wellness professionals should non presume that the offense they are handling is the lone one the victim has experienced. This requires taking a careful offense victimization history. • Supplying effectual mental wellness reding to victims may good be an effectual manner to cut down the hazard of future victimization. substance use/abuse. delinquency and violent behaviour.

Residential Location

Where an single lives influences one’s hazard of going a violent offense victim. Reiss and Roth ( 1993 ) study that violent offense rates increased as a map of community size. For illustration. the violent offense rate was 359 per 100. 000 occupants in metropoliss of less than 10. 000 ; but 2. 243 per 100. 000 in metropoliss with populations over a million translates to rates seven times greater. ( Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ; p. 79 ) .

Data including non-reported offenses from the National Crime Victimization Survey ( NCVS ) besides indicate that violent offense rates are highest in cardinal metropoliss. slightly lower in suburban countries. and lowest in rural countries ( Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1992 ) . The UCR and the NCVS are better at mensurating street offense than at mensurating violent offenses perpetrated by familiarities or spouses. Therefore. the premise that the increased hazard of violent assault associated with residential location most likely consequences from alien onslaughts. non needfully from onslaughts by household members or other confidants. is a map of the bounds of the measuring device.

Exposure to Potential Attackers

No violent assault can happen unless an attacker has entree to a possible victim. Person could hold every antecedently discussed hazard factor for violent assault and be wholly safe from assault unless approached by an attacker. A outstanding theory trying to foretell hazard of condemnable victimization is the everyday activities theory. As described by Laub ( 1990 ) . the hazard of victimization is related to a person’s life style. behaviour. and everyday activities. In bend. life styles and everyday activities are by and large related to demographic features ( e. g. . age and matrimonial position ) and other personal features. If a person’s life style or everyday activities places him or her in frequent contact with possible attackers. so they are more likely to be assaulted than if their everyday activities and life styles do non convey them into as frequent contact with marauding persons. For illustration. immature work forces have higher rates of attacking behaviour than any other age-gender group ( Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ; Rosenberg & A ; Mercy. 1991 ) .

Therefore. those whose everyday activities or life styles involve considerable contact with immature work forces should hold higher rates of victimization. Likewise. people who are married. who ne’er leave their houses after dark. and who ne’er take public transit should hold limited contact with immature work forces. and hence hold reduced hazard of assault. Although some have argued that everyday activities theory has significant support in the empirical literature ( Laub. 1990 ; Gottfredson. 1981 ) . most of the offense victimization informations that are used to measure assault hazard step alien assaults much better than spouse or familiarity assaults. Therefore. the theory is likely much more relevant to stranger assaults than to other assaults.

VI. Conclusion and Recommendation

Crime-related psychological injury impairs the ability and/or willingness of many offense victims to collaborate with the condemnable justness system. Many argued that victims must be treated better by the condemnable justness system because it can non carry through its mission without the cooperation of victims. At every cardinal phase of the condemnable justness system process–from contemplating doing a study to patrol. to go toing a parole hearing–interactions can be nerve-racking for victims and frequently exacerbates crime-related psychological injury. Victims whose crime-related fright makes them loath to describe offenses to constabularies or who are excessively terrified to attest. efficaciously make it impossible for the condemnable justness system to carry through its mission. Therefore. it is of import to understand:

• Victims’ crime-related mental wellness jobs.

• What facets of the condemnable justness system procedure are nerve-racking to victims. • What can be done to assist victims with their crime-related mental wellness jobs. • What can be done to assist victims get by with condemnable justness system-related emphasis. Effective partnerships among the condemnable justness system. victim aid forces. and trained mental wellness professionals can assist victims with crime-related psychological injury and with condemnable justness system-related emphasis.

By assisting victims through such partnerships. the condemnable justness system besides helps itself go more effectual in controling and cut downing offense. Several factors in the application of different conditioning rules to victims’ interactions with the condemnable justness system helps us understand why the condemnable justness system is so nerve-racking for many victims. First. engagement with the condemnable justness system requires offense victims to meet many cognitive and environmental stimulations that remind them of the offense. These scope from:

• Having to look at the suspect in the courtroom. • Having to believe about inside informations of the offense when fixing to attest. • Confronting a member of “second-order conditioned stimuli” in the signifier of constabulary. victim/witness advocators. and prosecuting officers. Second. meeting all these crime-related conditioned stimulations frequently consequences in turning away behaviour on the portion of the victims. • Such turning away behaviour is generated by learned fright and anxiousness. non by apathy. Avoidance can take victims to call off or non demo up for assignments with condemnable justness system officers. or victim advocators. Aside from conditioning. there are several other grounds that interacting with the condemnable justness system can be nerve-racking for victims.

• One ground interactions are nerve-racking is because victims lack information about that system and its processs. and victims fear the unknown. • A 2nd ground interactions are nerve-racking is that victims are concerned about whether they will be believed and taken earnestly by the condemnable justness system. Most victims view the condemnable justness system as representative of society as a whole. and whether they are believed and taken earnestly by the system indicates to them whether they are believed and taken earnestly by society.

VI. Bibliography

1. ( Bachman. 1994 ; Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1992 ; FBI Uniform Crime Reports. 1992 ; Hanson. Freedy. Kilpatrick. and Saunders. 1993 ; Kilpatrick. Seymour & A ; Boyle. 1991 ; Breslau. Davis. Andreski. and Peterson. 1991 ; Kilpatrick. Resnick. Saunders. and Best. in imperativeness ; Norris. 1992 ; Adler et Al. . 1994 ; Reiss & A ; Roth. 1993 ; Rosenberg & A ; Mercy. 1991 ) .

2. Dussich. John and Kiyoko Kishimoto. 2000. “Victim Aid in Japan: History. Culture and Programmes. ” In Paul C. Friday and Gerd Ferdinand Kirchhoff ( editors ) Victimology at the Passage: From the 20th to the twenty-first Century: Essaies in Honor of Hans Joachim Schneider. M nchengladbach. Germany: Shaker Verlag. 3. Schafer. Stephen. 1968. The Victim and His Criminal. New York: Random House. 4. World Wide Web. wikipedia. com

5. World Wide Web. Google. com. pH “Victimology”