gender difference in depressive symptoms

It is suggested that there is a gender difference in depressive symptoms, with adult females sing depression more frequently than work forces. Although a great figure of surveies has been carried out to place societal and personality factors that contributes to adult females ‘s greater exposure to depressive symptoms ; the grounds for such a gender difference still remains ill-defined. Possibly a better history of this difference should non merely affect look intoing these factors individually, but besides how these factors interact with each other ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson & A ; Grayson, 1999 ) .

It is believed that both work forces and adult females typically perceived males to be more powerful and competent than females. Therefore, males are more likely to busy more powerful functions in the society and have a higher societal position ( Nolen-Hoeksema et al. , 1999 ) . For illustration, females make up the bulk of baby-sitters, telephone operators and eating house waiters ( businesss with a lower societal position ) , while most attorneies, Judgess, and top executives are males ( businesss with a higher societal position ) . As a consequence, adult females are likely to gain less than work forces.

It is suggested that low income is associated with a higher hazard of going psychologically distressed ( Orpana, Lemyre & A ; Gravel, 2009 ) , and hence may increase the exposure to depressive symptoms.

Taken all these together, the present research aimed to look into: ( a ) how societal position, income and degree of distress lead to the gender difference in depressive symptoms ; and ( B ) how these factors affect each other and contributes to such a difference. The present research was based on self-report studies sing participants ‘ business, income, degree of hurt and depression tonss. Degree of hurt was measured utilizing the K6 tonss, which is a non-specific psychological hurt step ( Orpana et al. , 2009 ) , and depression tonss were measured utilizing the Hamilton Depression Scale. The way diagram in Figure 1 illustrates how each variable influences any variable later in the hierarchy.

Variables investigated in the present research:

X1

Gender ( dichotomous variable, with 0 coded for males and 1 coded for females )

X2

Social Status

X3

Income

X4

Distress

Yttrium

Depression Scores ( dependent variable )

The correlativities among these variables are as follows:

Gender

SOCSTATUS

Income

Distress

DEPSCORE

Gender

( 1.0 )

SOCSTATUS

-.386

( 1.0 )

Income

-.371

.648

( 1.0 )

Distress

.457

-.436

-.450

( 1.0 )

DEPSCORE

.441

-.203

-.411

.697

( 1.0 )

Given the cryptography of gender, the negative correlativities affecting gender mean that females have lower agencies than males on those variables. On norm, females have lower societal position and lower income than males. However, the positive correlativities affecting gender mean that females have higher agencies than males on those variables. On norm, females have higher degrees of hurt and higher depression tonss than males.

Degree centigrades: UsersuserPicturesMP Navigator EX2010_10_14IMG.jpg

Figure1. Path Diagram.

Model 1: ( Effectss on SOCSTATUS )

Interpretation of the consequence of GENDER on SOCSTATUS:

The direct consequence ( -.386 ) suggests that females are more likely to hold a lower societal position. This direct consequence is besides the entire consequence of gender on societal position as it can non be mediated by any other variable in the theoretical account.

Model 2: ( Effectss on INCOME )

Interpretations of effects on INCOME – Direct Effectss:

Keeping GENDER invariable, SOCSTATUS has a positive direct consequence on INCOME ( .593 ) , i.e. lower societal position leads to take down income as compared to higher societal position.

Interpretations of effects on INCOME – Indirect Effectss:

GENDER has a negative indirect consequence on INCOME – via SOCSTATUS ( -.229 ) , i.e. because females are more likely to hold a lower societal position, this leads to take down income received.

Interpretations of effects on INCOME – Entire Effectss:

The entire consequence of GENDER on INCOME is negative ( -.371 ) , coming from both a negative direct and a negative indirect consequence. That is, Womans have lower incomes, by virtuousness of being female ( direct consequence ) , or because they have a lower societal position ( indirect consequence ) .

The consequence of SOCSTATUS on INCOME can non be mediated by any other variable in the theoretical account. Thus the direct consequence of societal position on income is besides the entire consequence.

Model 3: ( Effectss on DISTRESS )

Interpretations of effects on DISTRESS – Direct Effectss:

Keeping all relevant variables changeless: Gender has a positive direct consequence on DISTRESS ( .307 ) , i.e. females are more likely to see higher degree of hurt. SOCSTATUS has a negative direct consequence on DISTRESS ( -.172 ) , i.e. lower societal position leads to higher degrees of hurt. INCOME has a negative direct consequence on DISTRESS ( -.225 ) , i.e. lower income leads to higher degrees of hurt.

Interpretations of effects on DISTRESS – Indirect Effectss:

SOCSTATUS has a negative indirect consequence on DISTRESS – via INCOME ( -.133 ) , i.e. because people with lower societal position are more likely to hold lower incomes, this leads to higher degrees of hurt.

GENDER has a positive indirect consequence on DISTRESS via SOCSTATUS ( .066 ) , i.e. because females are more likely to hold lower societal position, this leads to higher degree of hurt. GENDER besides has a negative indirect consequence on DISTRESS if via ( a ) INCOME ( .032 ) , i.e. because females are more likely to hold lower incomes, this leads to higher degrees of hurt ; or via ( B ) SOCSTATUS and INCOME ( .052 ) , i.e. females are likely to see higher degree of emphasis because they have lower incomes, due to holding lower societal position.

Interpretations of effects on DISTRESS – Entire Effectss:

The entire consequence of GENDER on DISTRESS is positive ( .457 ) , coming from both positive direct and positive indirect effects. That is, adult females experience higher degrees of hurt, by virtuousness of being females ( direct consequence ) , or because they are more likely to hold a lower societal position, or because they are more likely to hold lower incomes, or because they have lower incomes due to holding lower societal position ( indirect effects ) .

The entire consequence of SOCSTATUS on DISTRESS is negative ( -.305 ) , coming from both a negative direct and a negative indirect consequence. That is, people with lower societal position experience higher degrees of hurt, by virtuousness of holding a lower societal position, or because they have lower incomes.

The consequence of INCOME on DISTRESS can non be mediated by any other variable in the theoretical account. Thus the direct consequence of income on degrees of hurt is besides the entire consequence.

Model 4: ( Effectss on DEPSCORE )

Interpretations of effects on DEPSCORE – Direct Effectss:

Keeping all relevant variables changeless, GENDER, SOCSTATUS and DISTRESS has a positive direct consequence on DEPSCORE, i.e. females have higher depression tonss ( direct consequence = .173 ) , people with higher societal position have higher depression tonss ( direct consequence = .331 ) , and people sing higher degrees of hurt have higher depression tonss ( direct consequence = .635 ) . In contrast, INCOME has a negative direct consequence on DEPSCORE ( -.262 ) , i.e. people with lower incomes are more likely to hold higher depression tonss, when GENDE, SOCSTATUS and DISTRESS are held changeless.

Interpretations of effects on DEPSCORE – Indirect Effectss:

INCOME has a negative indirect consequence on DEPSCORE – via DISTRESS ( -.143 ) , i.e. because people with lower incomes are more likely to see higher degrees of hurt, this leads to higher depression tonss.

SOCSTATUS has a negative indirect consequence on DEPSCORE via ( a ) INCOME ( -.155 ) , i.e. because people with lower societal position are more likely to hold lower incomes, this leads to higher depression tonss ; or via ( B ) DISTRESS ( -.109 ) , i.e. because people with lower societal position are more likely to see higher degrees of hurt, this leads to higher depression tonss ; or via ( degree Celsius ) INCOME and DISTRESS ( -.085 ) , i.e. people with lower societal position are likely to hold higher depression tonss because they are sing higher degree of hurt, due to holding lower income.

GENDER has a negative indirect consequence on DEPSCORE via SOCSTATUS ( -.120 ) , i.e. because females are more likely to hold lower societal position, this leads to higher depression tonss. GENDER besides has a positive indirect consequence on DEPSCORE if via ( a ) DISTRESS ( .195 ) , i.e. females are more likely to see higher degrees of hurt and this leads to higher depression tonss ; or via ( B ) SOCSTATUS and INCOME ( .060 ) , i.e. females have higher depression tonss because they have lower incomes, due to holding lower societal position ; or via ( degree Celsius ) SOCSTATUS and DISTRESS ( .042 ) , i.e. females have higher depression tonss because they experience higher degrees of hurt, due to holding lower societal position ; or via ( vitamin D ) SOCSTATUS, INCOME and DISTRESS ( .033 ) , i.e. females with lower societal position have higher depression tonss because they experience higher degrees of hurt, due to holding lower incomes.

Interpretations of effects on DEPSCORE – Entire Effectss:

The entire consequence of GENDER on DEPSCORE is positive ( .42 ) , coming from both positive direct and preponderantly positive indirect effects. That is, Womans have higher depression tonss, by virtuousness of being females ( direct consequence ) , or because ( a ) they experience higher degree of hurt, or ( B ) they have lower incomes ( due to take down societal position ) , or ( degree Celsiuss ) they experience higher degrees of hurt ( due to take down societal position ) , or ( vitamin D ) they experience higher degrees of hurt ( caused by both lower income and lower societal position ) ( indirect effects ) . Merely when SOCSTATUS is taken into history ( indirect consequence via SOCSTATUS ) , does gender hold a negative consequence on depression tonss.

The entire consequence of SOCSTATUS on DEPSCORE is negative ( -.018 ) , coming from a positive direct consequence and negative indirect effects. That is, people with lower societal position have higher depression tonss, because they have ( a ) lower incomes, or ( B ) they experience higher degrees of hurt, or ( degree Celsiuss ) they experience higher degrees of hurt due to take down income ) ( indirect effects ) . Merely when the mediating variables ( SOCSTATUS, INCOME and DISTRESS ) are held changeless that lower societal position leads to take down depression tonss ( direct consequence of SOCSTATUS on DEPSCORE ) . This entire consequence is negative because the size of the entire indirect effects is greater than that of the direct consequence.

The entire consequence of INCOME on DEPSCORE is negative ( -.262 ) , coming from a negative direct consequence and a negative indirect consequence. That is, people with lower income have higher depression tonss, by virtuousness of holding lower incomes ( direct consequence ) , or because they experience higher degrees of hurt, due to take down income ( indirect consequence ) .

The consequence of DISTRESS on DEPSCORE can non be mediated by any other variable in the theoretical account, because no other variable can act upon DEPSCORE. Thus the direct consequence of hurt on depression tonss is besides the entire consequence.

Specious Component of the correlativity between SOCSTATUS and DEPSCORE:

The simple correlativity of SOCSTATUS and DEPSCORE ( R = -.203 ) implies that higher depression tonss occur with lower societal position instead than higher societal position. The positive specious constituent ( .185 ) comes from GENDER holding a negative consequence on SOCSTATUS ( -.386 ) , but positive consequence on DEPSCORE ( .173 ) , i.e. females are more likely to hold a lower societal position and females are likely to hold higher depression scores – GENDER leads SOCSTATUS and DEPSCORE to co-vary in opposite waies.

Specious Component of the correlativity between DISTRESS and DEPSCORE:

The simple correlativity of DISTRESS and DEPSCORE ( .697 ) implies that higher depression tonss occur with higher degrees of hurt than lower degrees. The entire consequence of DISTRESS on DEPSCORE is besides the positive direct consequence ( .635 ) ; and the specious constituent is really fiddling ( .062 ) . That is, as females are more likely to hold lower societal position and lower incomes, DISTRESS and DEPSCORE additions ( co-varying in same way ) .

In drumhead, the theoretical account implies that:

As people with lower societal position tend to have lower incomes and experience higher degrees of hurt ( because of lower societal position and lower incomes ) , they tend to hold higher depression tonss. Since males are likely to hold a higher societal position, the ( possible ) negative effects of societal position and income will be offset and can take to lower depression tonss. However, since females are likely to hold lower societal position, they tend to hold lower incomes and higher depression tonss than males with higher societal position.

Mentions

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. , Larson, J. , & A ; Grayson, C. ( 1999 ) . Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 1061-1072.

Orpana HM, Lemyre L & A ; Gravel R ( 2009 ) Income and psychological hurt: the function of the societal environment. Health Reports, 20, 21-28.