Literature Review, Action Research

Literature Review Within the last decade in particular, there have been many reports which identify the need to improve questioning which takes place within the classroom and the importance of using them to stretch and challenge learners. “Questions play an important role in the processes of teaching and learning because children’s achievement, and their level of engagement, depend on the types of questions teachers formulate and use in a classroom”. (Kerry, 2002).

Effective questioning of learners should be applied in everyday teaching with one particular method being incorporated which is referred to as the ‘Pose, Pause, Pounce and Bounce’ technique. This technique was first introduced as a strategy of Assessment for Learning which moves through Blooms Taxonomy. (Morrison-MacGill, 2013). Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy is valuable when determining the types of questions that teachers should ask their students. Bloom stated that there are six different levels of thinking: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 68-69). In describing these six different levels of comprehension, also called the cognitive domain, Bloom stated that the first three were representative of low-order thinking, or content, whereas the last three were representative of high-level thinking, or process. Effective teachers appeal to each level of thinking to encourage students to draw conclusions, relationships, and applications of information they receive during class. In the planning process, the teacher may consider different types of questions for the different types of learning which they will pose.

Once posed, they need to pause and allow the students sufficient time in which to respond. “Using wait time allows students to establish a certain level of comfort in the classroom and encourages them to voice their personal opinions more freely” (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 373). This suggestion is also supported by Mike Gershon, author of ‘What makes a good question’? in which he states “Give pupils thinking time. Ask a question and then ……wait. This means they will be able to analyse the question and consider their answer”. Gershon, What makes a good question,TesPro, 2013, pg4). The questioning process is an essential part of instruction in that it allows teachers to monitor student competence and understanding as well as increase thought-provoking discussion. Frequently, a lesson is composed of countless questions that often require minimal effort and low-level thinking to answer (Cooper, 2010, p. 192). Questions prepared in advance of a lesson will prove to be much more beneficial as a result of this.

All answers given should be met with feedback from the teacher and indeed peers in some cases, to allow clarification and it can be built upon to further expand the knowledge of the learner. Productive feedback, or follow-up, should serve to “clarify, synthesise, expand, modify, raise the level of, or evaluate students’ responses” (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 375). The importance of providing feedback is to encourage student-originated responses while correcting or elaborating on their effort.

In the case of an incorrect response, it is appropriate to ask the student to provide support for their answer in an effort to guide them towards the correct solution (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 377). In addition to providing feedback, probing is another effective technique used to expand thinking and increase the likelihood of future response (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 377). Redirecting, or posing the same question to a different student, or bouncing, is another method that is often used with students who demonstrate high levels of self-confidence (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 78). In contrast, students with a low self-concept respond poorly to this technique and are often discouraged by it (Cruickshank, 2009, p. 378 According to Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, students perform at their best when they are working within their zone of proximal development (Berk, 2009, p. 265). The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to a level of understanding in which a student is challenged but still able to comprehend and perform a particular skill.

Another theorist, Howard Gardner, introduced the concept of multiple intelligences in which he states that each individual operates under the conditions of a certain intelligence such as linguistic or musical (Berk, 2009, p. 323). Teachers must consider external factors from lesson to lesson and adapt their questioning techniques to suit. In application to questioning techniques, it is beneficial to ask questions that incorporate as many of the intelligences as possible.

This allows teachers to extend their lesson to a wider range of students and increase participation through individualising questions; through this method students are able to make personal connections to their own interests and are encouraged to express their opinions (Berk, 2009, p. 323). Improving the quality of questioning was one of the keys to raising attainment identified by Black and Wiliam in ‘Inside the Black Box’. “Firm evidence shows that formative assessment is an essential component of classroom work and that its development can raise standards of achievement” (Wiliam, 1998).

It is important to present students with questions that encourage reasoning and that allow them to draw from their prior knowledge rather than accepting “yes or no” responses, ones which they really need to think about. We ought to ask open ended questions where possible to promote discussion. Questions are often described as either open or closed. But this ‘either/or’ approach is not always helpful because definitions vary and questions do not necessarily fit neatly into either category.

It is perhaps more useful to think of questions as being somewhere along a continuum according to the response they are likely to elicit. Your choice depends on the purpose of your question. (Quality Improvement Agency for Lifelong Learning, 2008). The value of applying the Pose, Pause, Pounce and Bounce technique is supported by many theorists such as Petty, William, Gershon and Cruickshank. William in particular talks very highly of the technique within his book entitled ‘Content, then Process’ (William, 2010).