This experiment was performed to compare the effectivity between ocular acquisition and auditory larning on short-run memory. Forty topics were required to read a transition while another 40 topics were asked to listen to a recording of the same transition. After a three-minute filler undertaking, the topics were required to reply a set of 10 inquiries associating to the transition. Most topics had higher mark for ocular acquisition instead than audile acquisition. A statistical z-test was used to compare the mean of these two sets of consequence. Calculation showed that at 5 % significance degree, ocular acquisition was more effectual in constructing short-run memory than auditory acquisition, agring to the experimental hypothesis. There was sufficient grounds from statistical proving to demo that the mean mark in memory quiz for ocular acquisition was greater than auditory acquisition.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
There is no important difference between the mark for ocular and audile memory trial.
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EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS
The mark in ocular memory trial is higher compared to audile memory trial.
Research AND RATIONALE
The intent of this experiment was to compare the effectivity of both ocular acquisition and auditory larning on short-run memory.
Memory is defined as the power or procedure of reproducing or remembering what has been learned and retained particularly through associatory mechanisms, which include encoding, hive awaying and recovering. Harmonizing to Atkinson-Shiffrin Model ( 1968 ) , human memory can be divided into three major groups, viz. centripetal memory ( SM ) , short-run memory ( STM ) and long-run memory ( LTM ) . [ 4 ]
Figure 1: Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.audiologyonline.com/articles/article_detail.asp? article_id=1403 )
( 251 words )
Centripetal memory is a buffer that captures, for merely a minute, all that you can see, hear and experience. In general, centripetal memory is the ability of sense variety meats such as eyes, ears and tegument to retain centripetal information for a really brief period ( less than a 2nd ) . It can be divided into iconic memory ( vision ) and imitative memory ( hearing ) . When we focus attending on centripetal memory, this moves centripetal information into witting memory which is known as short-run memory. Short-run memory can keep a limited sum of information for approximately 30 seconds, but it stays longer under continual dry run and will finally converted into long-run memory. [ 1,5 ]
Short-run memory is the impermanent memory shop used to hive away and pull off information needed to execute complex cognitive undertakings. It is formed by brief alterations in the synaptic transmittals. It involves the fire of nerve cells which depletes the Readily Releasable Pool ( RRP ) of neurotransmitter cysts at presynaptic terminuss. After the fire slows down, endocytosis causes the short-run memory to disintegrate. The memory will vanish if it is non re-activated. Therefore, sporadically repeated information is needed so that information can retain for a longer period. [ 8 ]
Figure 2: Baddeley ‘s theoretical account of working memory
( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.thefullwiki.org/Baddeley % 27s_model_of_working_memory )
( 448 words )
Alan Baddeley proposed a more complex working memory theoretical account for short-run shop. It is an active three-part memory system that temporarily holds information which consists of an executive control cardinal that coordinates the phonological cringle ( storage for linguistic communication sound ) , visuo-spatial sketchpad ( storage for ocular and spacial information ) , and the episodic buffer. Working memory is really important in assisting us to work out jobs that require logical thinking and multitasking. [ 2,6 ]
Long-run memory is the depot of the encephalon where its capacity is tremendous and virtually lasting. It can be divided into declaratory memory ( consciously available ) and procedural memory ( unconsciously available ) . However, long-run memory distorts the facts and tends to go less dependable as we age. [ 1,7 ]
Figure 3: The activation of specific centripetal cerebral mantles during memory retrieval
( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.pnas.org/content/97/20/11125.full )
A survey by Randy L. Buckner aimed to analyze whether the retrieval of sensory-specific information will reactivate the parts of centripetal cerebral mantle. The result revealed from functional MRI showed that secondary countries in auditory and ocular cerebral mantle were reactivated when sound and image memories were recalled severally. Since different parts were activated during information retrieval, ocular memory should be different from audile memory. Figure 3 shows the activation maps during perceptual experience of ocular objects ( a & A ; c ) and sound ( vitamin E ) every bit good as the callback of ocular memory ( B & A ; vitamin D ) and audile memory ( degree Fahrenheit ) . [ 9 ]
( 660 words )
A survey by Michael A. Cohen examined the lower status of auditory to ocular memory utilizing acknowledgment step. The experiment was done by proving the ability of topics to remember the stimulations, for case sound cartridge holders, verbal description, image or combination of both. Comparison of informations showed that callback for image is better comparison to other stimulations. [ 10 ] Besides, Cohen besides compared auditory and ocular memory in instrumentalists who have far better audile acknowledgment memory. However, the consequences showed that the memory for audile stimulation was still inferior to ocular object. Therefore, it is clear from these consequences that audile acknowledgment memory public presentation can non be on par with the degrees of ocular acknowledgment memory. [ 11 ]
The results of this experiment could be important in instruction, working topographic point and concern scheme. Educators should concentrate on ocular instruction by fixing more ocular stimulation such as diagrams, slideshows or head maps to do the lessons more effectual and heighten the pupil memory. Directors should supply a transcript of information instead than giving direction verbally to forestall employee from doing mistake. Furthermore, companies should supply ocular consequence when advertisement through telecasting or posting instead than via wireless so that consumers can retrieve better of that company.
( 859 words )
Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of stimulation ( ocular or auditory )
Reacting Variable: Mark in memory trial ( grade of memory )
Changeless Variables: Age and instruction degree of the topics, period of the trial
Planning
As stated above, premise was made that both ocular and audile acquisition have the same consequence on short-run memory, therefore all these tests were conducted utilizing merely one type of stimulation which is ocular stimulation.
Trial 1: Length of the transition
This test was conducted to happen out the most appropriate length of transition for the memory trials. Four topics were given a transition of 234 words while another four were given a transition of 843 words to read. After that, the topics were required to reply a set of 10 inquiries related to the transition.
Length of the transition
Memory trial mark
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
234 words
10
10
10
9
843 words
5
4
4
5
Table 1: Consequences of first test experiment
From Table 1, topics ‘ public presentation is about perfect in the memory trial when covering with the short transition of 234 words. On the other manus, topics who deal with the long transition of 843 words answered less than half of the inquiry right. Therefore, I decided to utilize a reasonably long transition of around 500 words to obtain an ideal consequence in the existent experiment.
( 1086 words )
Trial 2: The necessity of filler undertaking
This test was done to happen out whether a filler undertaking is necessary and its continuance before continuing to the memory quiz. First two topics ware non required to make any filler undertaking ( Sudoku mystifier ) while the staying topics were asked to make the filler undertaking within 2, 3 and 4 proceedingss severally.
Duration of Filler Task ( proceedingss )
Mark
1st
2nd
Without
8
8
2
7
8
3
6
7
4
5
5
Table 2: Consequences of 2nd test experiment
From Table 2, topics who answered the inquiry without distraction undertaking was somewhat higher than those who had done the Sudoku mystifier. Besides, it was noted that the last few inquiries where the replies were found on the last portion of the transition were answered right for those without filler undertaking. Therefore, a distraction undertaking is necessary to deflect the topics from practising the information they had merely received and replying the inquiry straight without holding the information converted into short-run memory. Besides, the continuance of filler undertaking was fixed at 3 proceedingss as it seemed long plenty to forestall topics from practising the freshly received information but non excessively long to do memory decay.
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Trial 3: Suitable Timeframe
This test was conducted to look into the perfect timeframe for the topics to finish the memory trial. Six topics took portion in this test, with two in a group. They were given a transition that subsequently used in the existent experiment to read and reply 10 inquiries within clip bounds. The three groups required to reply within 1, 2 and 3 proceedingss severally.
Time bound ( min )
Mark
1st
2nd
1
3
4
2
5
6
3
8
7
Table 3: Consequences of 3rd test experiment
From Table 3, the longer the clip bound, the higher the mark each topics obtained. The topics were debriefed after the memory trial sing the clip bound given. Those who underwent clip bound of 1 and 2 proceedingss claimed that the clip given was excessively short for them to finish all the inquiries. Subjects who did the trial within 3 proceedingss claimed that they merely manage to finish the inquiries on clip. They felt stressed during the experiment and this might restrict the topic ‘s public presentation. Hence, I decided to go forth out the clip bound so that topics can reply the inquiry in a stress-free status.
The ocular stimulation administered was a one-page printed transition that I get from the mention book “ Cambridge Practice Test for IELTS 2 ” , Test Four, Section 2. On the other manus, the auditory stimulation used was a three-minute recording of the same transition taken from the CD-ROM. A transition was used alternatively of simple words, figure or image callback to mime real-life state of affairs in work topographic point or in schoolroom where people were bound to tonss of information which they have to retrieve. This transition dwelling of 551 words was chosen as it was designed by an experient writer who written for IELTS mention book and IELTS is a recognized international English testing system. The transition was clear, concise and contained a batch of information and there were inquiries provided. Besides, the individual who produces the tape book has high proficiency in English, therefore there will be no complain about the lucidity of the tape book.
( 1645 words )
Method
Random sample of 80 topics were selected from the Advanced Level pupils in Intec Education College.
The topics were divided into two groups that carried out ocular and audile trial severally.
For ocular trial, each topic was given three sheets of paper beforehand.
( A transition, a memory trial of 10 inquiries and a Sudoku mystifier )
For audile trial, each topic was given two sheets of paper beforehand.
( A memory trial of 10 inquiries and a Sudoku mystifier )
The topics were instructed to read the transition and listen carefully to the entering played by a wireless inside the schoolroom once merely and seek to memorise as much information as they can.
Immediately after the presentation of stimulation, the topics were asked to finish the Sudoku mystifier as a filler undertaking in 3 proceedingss to cut down dry run.
After that, the topics were required to make the memory trial without a clip bound and manus in the reply sheet after they had done.
The tonss of each topic from each group were calculated and recorded in a tabular array. A box-plot and a saloon chart were drawn to stand for the information. Z-test was used to compare the mean of ocular and audile memory trial at 5 % important degree.
RISK ASSESSMENT
All topics ‘ personal inside informations were kept anon. for confidentiality intent. They were instructed non to unwrap any information sing the quiz to anyone who had non taken the trial. Besides, topics were told that this experiment was non done on proving the person ‘s intelligence or memory power to avoid any unneeded emphasis which could impact the topics ‘ public presentation. The volume of the recording played over the wireless was set at an acceptable volume so that everyone could hear clearly and did non do any damage on hearing. Otherwise, this was a low-risk process.
( 1942 words )
Consequence
Number of people, degree Fahrenheit
Memory trial tonss, Ten
Visual, X1
0
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
2
5
4
6
8
7
11
8
10
9
5
10
0
Mean
xI„1 = 6.95
Table 4: Consequences for memory trial of ocular and audile acquisition
( 2005 words )
Graph 1: Box secret plan for memory quiz mark of ocular and audile acquisition
( 2018 words )
Statistical Analysis
X1: Ocular memory trial
Memory quiz tonss, ten
Visual, degree Fahrenheit
fx
x2
fx2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
4
0
3
0
0
9
0
4
2
8
16
32
5
4
20
25
100
6
8
48
36
288
7
11
77
49
539
8
10
80
64
640
9
5
45
81
405
10
0
0
100
0
n = 40
a?‘ fx = 278
a?‘ fx2 = 2004
Table 5: Statisticss for ocular memory trial
Mean, xI„1 = = = 6.95
Discrepancy, I?A? = – xI„12 = – 6.952 = 1.7975
Standard Deviation, I?1 = = = 1.34070877
( 2138 words )
X2: Auditory memory trial
Memory quiz tonss, ten
Auditory, degree Fahrenheit
fx
x2
fx2
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
6
4
12
3
5
15
9
45
4
8
32
16
128
5
10
50
25
250
6
7
42
36
252
7
4
28
49
196
8
2
16
64
128
9
0
0
81
0
10
0
0
100
0
n = 40
a?‘ fx = 190
a?‘ fx2 = 1012
Table 6: Statisticss for audile memory trial
Mean, xI„2 = = = 4.75
Discrepancy, I?A? = – xI„12 = – 4.752 = 2.7375
Standard Deviation, I?2 = = = 1.65453921
( 2258 words )
Z-test is a statistical trial extended from t-test. It follows a normal distribution where the informations have the same mean, average and manner. It is used to manage big samples when n a‰? 30 and standard divergence is given. In this experiment, there was one variable ( type of stimulation ) , two samples ( ocular and audile memory trials ) and 40 observations for each sample. The information was unmatched as each topic sat for the trial one time merely. The difference between discrepancies in the two samples is little ( 0.94 ) . Therefore, a z-test was applied. [ 3 ]
Number of samples, Ns
Mean, xI„
Standard Deviation, I?
Visual, xI„1
40
6.95
1.34070877
Auditory, xI„2
40
4.75
1.65453921
Table 7: Basic statistics for both memory trial tonss
Hypothesis Test for Two Population Meanss
H0: I?1 = I?2 ( The mean scores in both ocular and audile memory trial are equal )
H1: I?1 & gt ; I?2 ( The mean mark in ocular memory trial is greater than that in audile memory trial )
Given the void hypothesis and I?1 = 1.34070877, n1 = 40, I?2 = 1.65453921, n2 = 40
xI„1 – xI„2 ~ N ( 0, + )
By Central Limit Theorem, the trial statistics is:
Z =
Since under H0, I?1 = I?2 so in this instance I? ocular = I? auditory and therefore
Z =
= 6.53615718
a‰? 6.5362
( 2483 words )
Harmonizing to the Table for Critical values for two-tailed omega trial, the critical value for a two-tailed trial when P = 0.01 will be the critical values for p=0.05 for a one-tailed trial. Therefore, the critical value for Z is z = 1.647. From the consequence above, the value of omega at 5 % chance degree is 6.5362 which are higher than the critical value of 1.6449. Therefore, the void hypothesis, H0 is rejected. There is sufficient grounds that the mean mark in memory quiz for ocular memory is greater than that for audile memory. This agrees with the experimental hypothesis and lucifers with the two surveies stated earlier which were done by Michael A. Cohen turn outing that audile memory is inferior to ocular memory, giving better short-run memory callback. Since Z calculated is a batch higher than Z critical, there is much less than 5 % opportunity that the consequences occurred by opportunity, and more than 95 % opportunity that the mean for ocular memory trial is higher even if the experiment is repeated on the similar population.
( 2659 words )
Graph 2: Bar chart for memory quiz mark of ocular and audile acquisition
( 2672 words )
DATA ANALYSIS
Graph 2 shows that the mark scope of ocular trial is within 4 to 9 whereas the mark scope for audile trial is within 1 to 8. The manners for ocular and audile memory trial are 5 and 7 severally. It is a immense contrast as most of the topics scored less than half of the entire Markss for audile trial while most of the topics scored more than half of the entire Markss for ocular trial. Therefore, it is obvious that subjects tend to bury the information more rapidly when it is presented by unwritten compared to ocular.
There were anomalousnesss in this probe, particularly in the audile trial group. One capable gets merely one reply correct in the memory trial and it had been reconfirmed that there was no taging mistake. This might be due to the peculiar topic was tired and deficiency of slumber the dark earlier. This account was supported by the research of Polzella and Donald J. that stated sleep want increases the happening of oversights, periods of lowered reactive capacity, which prevent the encryption of points in short-run memory. [ 12 ] Likewise, two of the topics get eight inquiries right in the memory trial. This might be due to both topics are Grade 8 piano player who have a better hearing ability and are good auditory scholar that can retrieve the audile information outstandingly. This was stated in Michael A. Cohen ‘s research that instrumentalists have far better audile acknowledgment memory. [ 11 ]
However, I found out that some topics with high tonss in the memory trial did non even complete half of the Sudoku mystifier. This may be due to the fact that they kept remembering what they had read during the distraction trial but non concentrating on the Sudoku mystifier. During the existent trial, they were merely practising the information they read a few proceedingss earlier.
( 2980 words )
The high quality of ocular memory can be explained harmonizing to the manner the information is perceived and stored as memory. Auditory verbal information enters automatically into the phonological shop whereas visually presented words are transformed into phonological codification by soundless articulation foremost and later into the phonological shop. Therefore, the ocular information stored twice as ocular codification instead than audile codification. [ 6 ]
From the survey by Buckner, we know that ocular and audile memory retrieval involves the activation of different encephalon part. The sensory-specific parts are activated most robustly during callback of ocular memory whereas audile memory represents a distinguishable subset of those activated during perceptual experience. The ground buttocks may be the capacity for ocular memory is larger than audile memory, therefore complex ocular memory can be converted into memory more quickly and easy. [ 9 ]
The belongingss of auditory and ocular information are different. In footings of natural philosophies or psychophysics, audile information is said to be less memorable than their ocular opposite numbers. It could be that the singular ability to quickly encode and retrieve meaningful stimulations is a characteristic of ocular processing. [ 12 ] Eberman and McKelvie proposed that a individual was more prone to organize graphic images, peculiarly if the original beginning was ocular than if it was audile. [ 13 ]
Ocular stimulations are seen and heard through dry run care in the encephalon while audile stimulations are merely heard, doing it more hard to execute. When the encephalon is treating a ocular image, the cognitive operation requires the find of a ‘mental image ‘ , but when the cognitive operation is the procedure of an audile stimulation, the encephalon demands to hear the word and so make a ‘mental image ‘ in order for a right callback to take topographic point. Therefore, audile larning seems slower comparison to ocular acquisition. [ 14 ]
( 3271 words )
Evaluation
There might be fluctuation in memory capacity between persons, therefore a big sample of 80 topics was used in the experiment to guarantee sufficient replicates were produced to back up the decision. Besides, random choosing and grouping of topics and consistence of gender will assist better the dependability of the consequences because there will be no prejudice in footings of topics selected to take part in which trial.
The age of the topics was kept changeless ( 20 ) because capableness to memorize varies with age. For illustration, older people were more prone to develop dementedness and were less effectual in memorizing information, therefore giving an undependable consequence. Furthermore, topics must hold the same degree of instruction as people who weak in English and understanding might non be able to reply the inquiries decently, be it in ocular or audile signifier. Subjects must non hold any job related to their eyes ( reading ) and ears ( listening ) to guarantee the experiment done swimmingly. In add-on, the period of the trial conducted must be fixed as the effectivity of larning varies throughout the twenty-four hours. Subjects might experience hungry at the midday and tired around the eventide after whole twenty-four hours of academic session. Therefore, the full trial was conducted in the forenoon as it is the aureate period for the topics to larn and memorizing information efficaciously. Participant who were physically ill or mentally tired were excluded from this probe as their status might deteriorate their memory public presentation.
In decision, the consequences can be considered to be valid and dependable as the whole experiment was conducted with minimum mistakes and a big sample size.
( 3537 words )
LIMITATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS
In this experiment, since the same topic can non sit for both trial due to same transition used, it has been assumed that the single fluctuations amongst the topics do non impact the consequences of the survey. However, different people might hold different memorizing power, therefore one alteration that could be made is by holding the same topics making both ocular and audile memory trial but on different transition which are closely similar in footings of length, information and criterion of English.
Although the topics involved in this experiment are selected indiscriminately, it is merely stand foring the population in International Education College but non whole general college-aged pupils. Therefore, the experiment can be modified by holding a larger sample size from other colleges to obtain a more conclusive, representative and dependable consequences.
However, it was hard for a individual to memorize all the information in the long transition. They may lose out some points which will impact the results of the probe. Therefore, the transition can be replaced by 30 phrases so that they know precisely what to retrieve.
Further INVESTIGATION
Further research can be done by look intoing the efficiency of ocular and audile larning method in changing age cohorts. Besides, other types of memory steps such as acknowledgment of image and words can be carried out for farther survey. Last, a comparing between genders in footings of both types of memory can be conducted as the memorizing power between males and females could be different.
( 3780 words )
Beginning Evaluation
Beginning 1 is an e-book that written by psychological science experts while beginning 2 and 3 are published books so the information in it should be facts. They are all believable beginnings as their content would hold been reviewed by other experts prior to publication.
Beginning 4 is a web site from Indiana University while beginning 5 is a website supported by Bryn Mawr College and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, therefore the information are dependable. Beginning 6 and 7 is from Wikipedia where most of the informations and information obtained are cited and linked to many literatures and academic research.
Beginnings 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 are scientific diaries that written by experts from celebrated universities. Their research documents consist of experiments similar to my scientific probe subject. The consequences obtained are widely recognised and have been peer-reviewed by other scientists before being published, therefore they are trustable.
Decision
It is clear that ocular acquisition is more effectual than audile larning on short-run memory. It is proven by the mean mark in ocular trial which is 6.95, which is greater than the audile trial which is 4.75. The z-value, 6.5362 is higher than the critical value at 5 % significance degree. Experimental hypothesis is accepted.
( 4984 words )
Appendix
TEXT Passage
Great. Well, hello, everyone! My name ‘s Jody and I ‘m one of the four diversion officers here at Rainforest Lodge. My occupation is to do certain that you all have a great stay here with us and travel off experiencing relaxed and refreshed. As you can see, we ‘re literally in the center of nowhere at the Lodge. There are no newspapers or Televisions and there ‘s merely one phone and that ‘s in the office. The Lodge is a complete ‘get off from it all ‘ experience: a topographic point to wind off and appreciate the universe without a batch of breaks and distractions.
From your cabin balcony you ‘ll happen that you ca n’t see anyone else and the lone noise you should hear is the birds. When the baggage comes, one of the cats will take it across to your cabin for you and do certain you know the manner back here to the chief Centre for dinner in the eating house. Dinner will be served in about an hr or so.
All the times of each twenty-four hours ‘s activities are printed on the bluish sheet you should hold got in the information ushers that were handed out on the manager. Each Explorer trip has a different focal point, so it does n’t count how many you do or on what twenty-four hours, because there ‘s ever something new to detect in the rain forest.
Tomorrow I think we ‘ve still got topographic points on the Orchid and Fungi Tour. This is on pes and takes you to different parts of the rain forest. Or, if you ‘d prefer, there ‘s the Four- Wheel-Drive circuit to the waterfalls, or the fishing trip where I promise you we ‘ll catch some tiffin, and last but non least, the celebrated Crocodile Cruise that leaves at 11 am each twenty-four hours. ( Just in clip for the crocodile ‘s tiffin! ) Plenty to take from here at Rainforest Lodge or merely sit on your balcony relax and unwind and bask the positions. In the eventides there is the Spotlight Tour, one of my front-runners. The Spotlight Tour leaves at sunset and lets you catch a glance of some more of the rain forest ‘s wildlife as it comes out at twilight to feed. That ‘s a great trip and if you can, I ‘d truly seek to do certain you do it during your stay.
( 4359 words )
You ‘ve chosen to see the rain forest in March, which is merely at the terminal of the moisture season, so you ‘ll shortly detect how good the waterfalls are running and besides how moist the land is. Thingss can be given to acquire a spot slippy, excessively, so if you did n’t convey any walk-to boots I ‘d rede you to engage some from the office. You ‘ll besides be much better off in long pants instead than trunkss because they will give your legs more protection and socks are a good thought excessively.
There ‘s no demand to be nervous of the rain forest provided that you treat it with regard and common sense. Most of the animate beings and wildlife are soft and harmless. There are some deadly serpents to mind of, but truly they ‘re much more scared of you than you are of them. The other thing is that certain workss can do annoyance if you touch them with bare tegument.
Well, that ‘s about all for the clip being. The cats are here to take you and your baggage to the cabins. . .
( 4538 words )
Question
At Rainforest Lodge there are n’t any…
telephones or Televisions.
newspapers or TVs.
telephones or newspapers.
The invitees are told to…
transport their baggage to the cabin.
travel directly to the eating house.
delay an hr for dinner.
TOUR Name
Detailss
Orchid and Fungi
walking circuit
Four-Wheel-Drive
circuit to the 3 ) _____________
Fishing
to catch tiffin
Crocodile Cruise
departs at 4 ) _____________ day-to-day
5 ) _____________
departs at sunset
What THREE points of vesture does the talker recommend for the rain forest?
6 ) ______________________________
7 ) ______________________________
8 ) ______________________________
Which TWO things in the rain forest does the talker give a warning about?
9 ) ______________________________
10 ) ______________________________
( 4636 words )
DISTRACTION TASK
8
2
8
7
6
4
3
1
9
5
8
4
9
6
1
8
1
3
5
4
7
2
7
4
7
6
4
3
5
6
CRITICAL VALUES FOR A TWO-TAILED Z Trial
Probability value
Omega
0.10
1.647
0.05
1.960
0.01
2.576
0.02
2.326
0.002
3.100
0.001
3.291
( 4681 words )
