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As we have seen, public policy can drive the issues that create a cultural climate looking for change. Several issues that are finding platforms for discussion among politicians, teachers, and communities could provoke changes in the next few years.

The trends we currently see in family support services are: * States adopting a variety of tax credits for working families giving them help with childcare and in-home care expenses (Hirschhorn Donahue, 2006) * Family-leave policies, allowing both parents opportunities to spend time with newborn babies in the early formative years of infancy * Flexible work schedules and job-sharing opportunities for parents who want to continue on their career path * Internet and media control legislation to assure parents that children will not view or find inappropriate materials while using these media for learning * Improvement in the quality and availability of infant and toddler care Educational trends and research that we will see in the coming years include: * Standards-based education, focusing on outcomes for student learning (Schumacher, Irish, & Lombardi, 2003)

* Full-day kindergarten providing more time for in-class experiential learning (Walston & West, 2004) * Research on the economic impact of the child-care industry and its effect on the local community; employment needs are identified to maintain a workforce (Rolnick & Grunewald, 2003). Prekindergarten opportunities for every four-year-old in the United States, the universal Pre-K movement (Pre[K] Now, 2006) * National School Readiness Indicators Initiative, creating a set of measurable indicators defining school readiness (Getting Ready, February 2005) * Quality Rating Systems, a system of rating the quality of child-care programs that is tied to incentives and reimbursement rates (NCCIC, June 2002)

* TEACH, professional development for early-care and early-education teachers tied to education and training incentives (TEACH, 2004) * Early childhood assessment, looking at appropriate assessments spurred on by the debate surrounding the Head Start National Reporting System assessment (Horton & Bowman, 2001). * Gubernatorial Leadership for Early Care and Education (Lovejoy, 2006) * Environmental Rating scales used in measuring the quality of early childhood programs (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 1998) EDUCATION: Trends and IssuesI. SOME PERENNIAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION • Lack of facilities in public schools • School year • Number of years • Medium of instruction • Subjects • Gender issues • Drop-out rate •

Quality of proficiency of the teachers • Rising cost of Philippine education of sending a child to school Career describes an individuals’ journey through learning, work and other aspects of life. There are a number of ways to define a career and the term is used in a variety of ways. Professional outlook is what you think about the type of job you like. Security Security as a condition is the degree of resistance to, or protection from, harm. It applies to any vulnerable and valuable asset, such as a person, dwelling, community, nation, or organization. Establishing or maintaining a sufficient degree of security is the aim of the work, structures, and processes called “security. As noted by the Institute for Security and Open Methodologies (ISECOM) in the OSSTMM 3, security provides “a form of protection where a separation is created between the assets and the threat. “

These separations are generically called “controls,” and sometimes include changes to the asset or the threat. Security is the degree of protection to safeguard a nation, union of nations, persons or person against danger, damage, loss, and crime. Security as a form of protection are structures and processes that provide or improve security as a condition. The Institute for Security and Open Methodologies (ISECOM) in the OSSTMM 3 defines security as “a form of protection where a separation is created between the assets and the threat”. This includes but is not limited to the elimination of either the asset or the threat.

Security as a national condition was defined in a United Nations study (1986): so that countries can develop and progress safely. Security has to be compared to related concepts: safety, continuity, reliability. The key difference between security and reliability is that security must take into account the actions of people attempting to cause destruction. ————————————————- Legal issues and global regulation One of the main challenges to and main complaints about the antivirus industry is the lack of global web regulations, a global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cyber crimesand cyber criminals.

In fact, nowadays, even if an antivirus firm locates the cyber criminal behind the creation of a particular virus or piece of malware or again one form of cyber attack, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute. [17][18] This is mainly caused by the fact that mostly every country has an own regulation about cyber crimes. “[Computer viruses] switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another — moving around the world, using the fact that we don’t have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world. “[17] (Mikko Hyppönen) Due to some of the European’s antivirus firms (e. g. Avira, BullGuard, F-Secure, Frisk, Panda, TG Soft, … to solve this problem, the European Commission has decided to establish the European Cybercrime Centre(EC3). [19]

The EC3 effectively opened on 1 January 2013 and will be the focal point in the EU’s fight against cyber crime, contributing to faster reaction to online crimes. It will support member states and the EU’s institutions in building an operational and analytical capacity for investigations, as well as cooperation with international partners. [20] ————————————————- [edit]Notes Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network. [1] The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. 2] Netcrime refers to criminal exploitation of the Internet. [3] Cybercrimes are defined as: “Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)”. [4] Such crimes may threaten a nation’s security and financial health. [5] Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding cracking, copyright infringement, child pornography, and child grooming.

There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise. Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyber warfare. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors accountable for their actions through theInternational Criminal Court. [6] Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology to gain an illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with intent of damaging, deleting or altering computer data.

Computer crimes also include the activities such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices, identity theft and data as well as system interference. Computer crimes may not necessarily involve damage to physical property. They rather include the manipulation of confidential data and critical information. Computer crimes involve activities of software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is hampered. These criminal activities involve the breach of human and information privacy, as also the theft and illegal alteration of system critical information. The different types of computer crimes have necessitated the introduction and use of newer and more effective security measures.

Read more at Buzzle: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/types-of-computer-crimes. tml Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is called hacking. The unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized access to the private communication of an organization of a user is one of the widely known computer crimes. Another highly dangerous computer crime is the hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false identity, thus remaining anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.

Phishing: Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames, passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried out through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake websites. Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular website, which makes the users feel safe to enter their details there. Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate themselves and harm the computer systems on a network without the knowledge of the system users. Viruses spread to other computers through network file system, through the network, Internet or by the means of removable devices like USB drives and CDs.

Computer viruses are after all, forms of malicious codes written with an aim to harm a computer system and destroy information. Writing computer viruses is a criminal activity as virus infections can crash computer systems, thereby destroying great amounts of critical data. Cyberstalking: The use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other individuals is known as cyberstalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to data and equipment fall under the class of cyberstalking activities. Cyberstalkers often target the users by means of chat rooms, online forums and social networking websites to gather user information and harass the users on the basis of the information gathered.

Obscene emails, abusive phone calls and other such serious effects of cyberstalking have made it a type of computer crime. Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and obtaining other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be someone else by using someone else’s identity as one’s own. Financial identity theft involves the use of a false identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity theft is the using of someone else’s business name or credit card details for commercial purposes. Identity cloning is the use of another user’s information to pose as a false user. Illegal migration, terrorism and blackmail are often made possible by means of identity theft.

Read more at Buzzle: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/types-of-computer-crimes. html Computer Security Issues An overview of computer security issues and how to deal with them. Information Assurance Services works closely with IT Services. IT Services are able to monitor computer and network usage in order to protect University assets and services. Maintaining computer security involves implementing suitable preventative measures, detecting potential vulnerabilities, detecting possible threats, detecting compromised systems and handling incidents. ————————————————- Topology Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities.

Generally, however, it may be divided into two categories: (1) crimes that target computers directly; (2) crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the cats network or device. [citation needed] Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include: * Computer viruses * Denial-of-service attacks * Malware (malicious code) Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include: * Cyberstalking * Fraud and identity theft * Information warfare * Phishing scams [edit]Spam Spam, or the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes, is unlawful in some jurisdictions. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic communications have existed for some time. [7] [edit]Fraud Main article: Computer fraud

Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss. [citation needed] In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by: * Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes; * Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect; * Altering or deleting stored data; Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes.

Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank fraud, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information. A variety of Internet scams target direct to consumers. [edit]Obscene or offensive content The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances these communications may be illegal. Over 25 jurisdictions place limits on certain speech and ban racist, blasphemous, politically subversive, libelous or slanderous, seditious, or inflammatory material that tends to incite hate crimes.

The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs. One area of Internet pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography. [edit]Harassment Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see cyber bullying, cyber stalking, hate crime, Online predator, and stalking).

Any comment that may be found derogatory or offensive is considered harassment. There are instances where committing a crime, which involves the use of a computer, can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of United States v. Neil Scott Kramer, Kramer was served an enhanced sentence according to the U. S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §2G1. 3(b)(3)[8] for his use of a cell phone to “persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct. ” Connecticut was the first state to pass a statute making it a criminal offense to harass someone by computer. Michigan, Arizona, and Virginia have also passed laws banning harassment by electronic means. 9][10] Harassment by computer statutes are typically distinct from cyberbullying laws, in that the former usually relates to a person’s “use a computer or computer network to communicate obscene, vulgar, profane, lewd, lascivious, or indecent language, or make any suggestion or proposal of an obscene nature, or threaten any illegal or immoral act,” while the latter need not involve anything of a sexual nature. [edit]

Threats Main article: Intimidation Although freedom of speech is protected by law in most democratic societies (in US this is done by First Amendment) that does not include all types of speech. In fact spoken or written “true threat” speech/text is criminalized because of “intent to harm or intimidate”, that also applies for online or any type of network related threats in written text or speech. 11] The US Supreme Courtdefinition of “true threat” is “statements where the speaker means to communicate a serious expression of an intent to commit an act of unlawful violence to a particular individual or group”. [11] [edit]Drug trafficking Drug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the Internet to sell their illegal substances through encrypted e-mail and other Internet Technology. Some drug traffickers arrange deals atinternet cafes, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines in restricted-access chat rooms. The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication.

These virtual exchanges allow more intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal drugs. The sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely minimized and the filtering process that comes with physical interaction fades away. [edit]Cyber terrorism Main article: Cyber terrorism Government officials and Information Technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But there is a growing concern among federal officials[who? ] that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by cyberterrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems.

A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based attack against computers, network, and the information stored on them. Cyber terrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. As well there are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining peoples’ lives, robberies, blackmailing etc.

Cyberextortion is a form of cyberterrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers, who demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, cyberextortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI and many go unreported in order to keep the victim’s name out of the public domain. Perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. [12] [edit]Cyber warfare Sailors analyze, detect and defensively respond to unauthorized activity within U. S. Navy information systems and computer networks Main article: Cyber warfare The U. S.

Department of Defense (DoD) notes that cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included the attack on Estonia’s infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. “In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states, the concept of cyberspace operations impacts and will be adapted by warfighting military commanders in the future. [13] ————————————————- Computer virus

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Computer viruses) See also: Malware A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself[1] and spread from one computer to another. The term “virus” is also commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to other types ofmalware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not have a reproductive ability. Malware includes computer viruses, computer worms, ransomware, trojan horses, keyloggers, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware, malicious BHOs and other malicious software. The majority of active malware threats are usually trojans or worms rather than viruses. 2]

Malware such as trojan horses and worms is sometimes confused with viruses, which are technically different: a worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself automatically to other computers through networks, while a trojan horse is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions. Worms and trojan horses, like viruses, may harm a computer system’s data or performance. Some viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many are surreptitious or simply do nothing to call attention to themselves. Some viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves. Computer Security Issues An overview of computer security issues and how to deal with them. Information Assurance Services works closely with IT Services. IT Services are able to monitor computer and network usage in order to protect University assets and services.

Maintaining computer security involves implementing suitable preventative measures, detecting potential vulnerabilities, detecting possible threats, detecting compromised systems and handling incidents. physical security Physical security is the protection of personnel, hardware, programs, networks, and data from physical circumstances and events that could cause serious losses or damage to an enterprise, agency, or institution. This includes protection from fire, natural disasters, burglary, theft, vandalism, and terrorism. Physical security is often overlooked (and its importance underestimated) in favor of more technical and dramatic issues such as hacking, viruses, Trojans, and spyware. However, breaches of physical security can be carried out with little or no technical knowledge on the part of an attacker.

Moreover, accidents and natural disasters are a part of everyday life, and in the long term, are inevitable. There are three main components to physical security. First, obstacles can be placed in the way of potential attackers and sites can be hardened against accidents and environmental disasters. Such measures can include multiple locks, fencing, walls, fireproof safes, and water sprinklers. Second, surveillance and notification systems can be put in place, such as lighting, heat sensors, smoke detectors, intrusion detectors, alarms, and cameras. Third, methods can be implemented to apprehend attackers (preferably before any damage has been done) and to recover quickly from accidents, fires, or natural disasters. Physical Security

Physical Security addresses actions you can take to protect buildings, property and assets against intruders. Topics covered include: video surveillance and CCTV systems; electronic access controls; alarms; locking hardware and Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Physical security describes security measures that are designed to deny access to unauthorized personnel (including attackers or even accidental intruders) from physically accessing a building, facility, resource, or stored information; and guidance on how to design structures to resist potentially hostile acts. [1] Physical security can be as simple as a locked door or as elaborate as multiple layers of barriers, armed security guards andguardhouse placement. [2] Viruses

A computer virus is a program, a block of executable code, which attach itself to, overwrite or otherwise replace another program in order to reproduce itself without a knowledge of a PC user. There are a couple of different types of computer viruses: boot sector viruses, parasitic viruses, multi-partite viruses, companion viruses, link viruses and macro viruses. These classifications take into account the different ways in which the virus can infect different parts of a system. The manner in which each of these types operates has one thing in common: any virus has to be executed in order to operate. [2] Most viruses are pretty harmless. The user might not even notice the virus for years. Sometimes viruses might cause random damage to data files and over a long period they might destroy files and disks.

Even benign viruses cause damage by occupying disk space and main memory, by using up CPU processing time. There is also the time and expense wasted in detecting and removing viruses. A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself[1] and spread from one computer to another. The term “virus” is also commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to other types of malware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not have a reproductive ability. Malware includes computer viruses, computer worms, ransomware, trojan horses, keyloggers, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware, malicious BHOs and other malicious software.

The majority of active malware threats are usually trojans or worms rather than viruses. 2] Malware such as trojan horses and worms is sometimes confused with viruses, which are technically different: a worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself automatically to other computers through networks, while a trojan horse is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions. Worms and trojan horses, like viruses, may harm a computer system’s data or performance. Some viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many are surreptitious or simply do nothing to call attention to themselves. Some viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves. Viruses also filterable viruses, or ultraviruses, agents of infectious diseases in plants, animals, and humans, which multiply only in living cells.

Viruses are smaller than a majority of known microbes; practically all viruses can pass through bacterial filters. Unlike bacteria, viruses cannot be cultivated in conventional nutrient media. For experimental and medical purposes (such as preparing vaccines) viruses are cultivated in animals and plants, chick embryos, and in tissue and cell cultures. Viruses cause many diseases, such as smallpox, measles, influenza, poliomyelitis, plague in cattle and poultry, rabies, a number offish and amphibian diseases, silkworm jaundice, tobacco mosaic disease, oat pupation disease, and numerous diseases of fungi and blue-green algae. The bacteriophages are a vast group of viruses that infect bacteria.

The existence of infectious agents that pass through bacterial filters was first demonstrated in 1892 by D. I. Ivanovskii, who discovered the filterability of the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease. Soon it was shown that other agents could pass through a filter, such as the causative agent of foot-and-mouth disease (1897), cattle plague (1899), fowl pox (1902), and rabies (1903). The word “virus” was first used in the present sense by M. Beijerinck (1899). Before that the word was sometimes also used for infectious microbial agents, such asMycobacterium tuberculosis. With continuing studies, our knowledge about viruses is becoming more exact and precise.

The causative agents of a number of diseases that were formerly included among the viruses, for example, rickettsias and the infectious agent of psittacosis, have been excluded from this group of organisms. Mature virus particles—virions, or virospores—are able to survive unfavorable conditions of the external environment and in this form do not show any signs of life. Following the entry into the organism, they infect susceptible cells and start to multiply and develop into mature daughter virus particles. Malicious logic A program routine that destroys data when certain conditions are met; for example, it may reformat the hard disk or insert random bits into data files on a certain date or if a particular employee record is missing from the employee database.

Many viruses are logic bombs because they deliver their payload after a specific latency or when a trigger event occurs. A computer program that destroys data, generally immediately after it has been loaded. logic bomb – Code surreptitiously inserted into an application or operating system that causes it to perform some destructive or security-compromising activity whenever specified conditions are met. logic bomb – a set of instructions inserted into a program that are designed to execute (or `explode’) if a particular condition is satisfied; when exploded it may delete or corrupt data, or print a spurious message, or have other harmful effects;

Malicious logic is defined as any instructions which may “cause a site’s security policy to be violated” (Bishop, 2005, p. 363). This typically includes applications which surreptitiously perform harmful actions on behalf of a subject. This paper focuses on Trojan Horses, various types of computer viruses, and worms. Also discussed are risk mitigation methodologies used to combat malicious logic. Trojan Horses Trojan horses are applications which are designed to trick a subject into executing malicious logic (Bishop, 2005). An example of a trojan horse is the cracker’s use of NTFS file streams to append another application – such as Netcat – to the end of a seemingly innocuous application like Solitaire (Wagner, 2007).

When the subject executes Solitaire. xe, Netcat will also be executed and potentially open unsecured ports used for cracker exploitation (Graves, 2010). Viruses Computer viruses are malicious logic sequences inserted into files and generally replicate to infect other files on the system and covertly execute commands (Bishop, 2005). Viruses present themselves are either executable infectors, boot sector infectors, or both in the case of multipartite viruses (Graves). Viruses may stay resident in memory even after an infected application is terminated in the case of terminate and stay resident viruses (Graves). An alternative form of virus is the macro virus. A macro virus is designed to be executed by another application such as Microsoft Office (Bishop).

With the ubiquity of virus detection software, virus developers have had to discover ways to circumvent these controls. Stealth viruses are designed to hide viruses on a system by intercepting operating system calls to falsely return expected results (Bishop, 2005). Encrypted viruses are also used to hide a virus by encoding the malicious instruction set to avoid detection (Bishop). Finally, polymorphic viruses are designed to alter their signature on each replication to continually avoid detection (Graves, 2010). Worms A worm is another kind of computer virus. The distinction between viruses and worms is that a worm has the ability to copy itself to other systems (Bishop, 2005).

Viruses can be designed to detect vulnerabilities in other systems and use those vulnerabilities as attack vectors in which to spread to other systems. Another method of spreading is the use of the subject’s email client (Bishop). By surreptitiously sending an infected file to contacts from the client’s address book, worms can propagate themselves exponentially using the initial subject’s contacts as a starting point. Malicious code is the general name for unanticipated or undesired effects in programs or program parts caused by an entity intent on damage. History is ripe with instances that people have found effective ways to breach an impregnable fortress by having the defenders bring the enemy inside the fortress.

The same approach works for computer systems. Def: Malicious logic is a set of instructions that cause a site’s security policy to be violated. Hacking may refer to: * Computer hacking, including the following types of activity: * Hacker (programmer subculture), activity within the computer programmer subculture * Hacker (computer security), to access computer networks, legally or otherwise * Computer crime * Phone hacking, the practice of intercepting telephone calls or voicemail messages without the consent of the phone’s owner * Illegal taxicab operation * Pleasure riding, horseback riding for purely recreational purposes * The act of stealing jokes Hacking, an area within Hietzing, a municipal district of Vienna, Austria

* Ian Hacking, Canadian philosopher of science hacking [‘hak·i?] (computer science) Use of a computer system without a specific, constructive purpose, or without proper authorization. spoofing (1) Faking the sending address of a transmission in order to gain illegal entry into a secure system. See e-mail spoofing. (2) Creating fake responses or signals in order to keep a session active and prevent timeouts. For example, mainframes continuously poll their terminals. If the lines to remote terminals are temporarily suspended because there is no traffic, a local device spoofs the host with “I’m still here” responses.

Deceiving or misleading the enemy in electronic operations, as by continuing transmission on a frequency after it has been effectively jammed by the enemy, using decoy radar transmitters to lead the enemy into a useless jamming effort, or transmitting radio messages containing false information for intentional interception by the enemy. spoofing – A technique used to reduce network overhead, especially in wide area networks (WAN). Some network protocols send frequent packets for management purposes. These can be routing updates or keep-alive messages. In a WANthis can introduce significant overhead, due to the typically smaller bandwidth of WAN connections. Spoofing reduces the required bandwidth by having devices, such as bridges or routers, answer for the remote devices. This fools (spoofs) theLAN device into thinking the remote LAN is still connected, even though it’s not.

The spoofing saves the WAN bandwidth, because no packet is ever sent out on the WAN. ———————————————— Spoofing The word “spoof” means to hoax, trick, or deceive. Therefore, in the IT world, spoofing refers tricking or deceiving computer systems or other computer users. This is typically done by hiding one’s identity or faking the identity of another user on the Internet. Spoofing can take place on the Internet in several different ways. One common method is through e-mail. E-mail spoofing involves sending messages from a bogus e-mail address or faking the e-mail address of another user. Fortunately, most e-mail servers have security features that prevent unauthorized users from sending messages.

However, spammers often send spam messages from their own SMTP, which allows them to use fake e-mail addresses. Therefore, it is possible to receive e-mail from an address that is not the actual address of the person sending the message. Another way spoofing takes place on the Internet is via IP spoofing. This involves masking the IP address of a certain computer system. By hiding or faking a computer’s IP address, it is difficult for other systems to determine where the computer is transmitting data from. Because IP spoofing makes it difficult to track the source of a transmission, it is often used in denial-of-service attacks that overload a server. This may cause the server to either crash or become unresponsive to legitimate requests.

Fortunately, software security systems have been developed that can identify denial-of-service attacks and block their transmissions. http://www. scotsman. com/business/internal-misuse-is-as-big-a-danger-as-external-hackers-1-581706 ethics, in philosophy, the study and evaluation of human conduct in the light of moral principles. Moral principles may be viewed either as the standard of conduct that individuals have constructed for themselves or as the body of obligations and duties that a particular society requires of its members. Ethics has developed as people have reflected on the intentions and consequences of their acts. From this reflection on the nature of human behavior, theories of conscience have developed, giving direction to much ethical thinking.

Intuitionists (Ralph Cudworth, Samuel Clarke), moral-sense theorists (the 3d earl of Shaftesbury, Francis Hutcheson), and sentimentalists (J. J. Rousseau, Pierre-SimonBallanche) postulated an innate moral sense, which serves as the ground of ethical decision. Empiricists (John Locke, Claude Helvétius, John Stuart Mill) deny any such innate principle and consider conscience a power of discrimination acquired by experience. In the one case conscience is the originator of moral behavior, and in the other it is the result of moralizing. Between these extremes there have been many compromises. Copyright is a legal concept, enacted by most governments, giving the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time.

Generally, it is “the right to copy”, but also gives the copyright holder the right to be credited for the work, to determine who may adapt the work to other forms, who may perform the work, who may financially benefit from it, and other related rights. It is a form of intellectual property (like the patent, the trademark, and the trade secret) applicable to any expressible form of an idea or information that is substantive and discrete. [ Copyright initially was conceived as a way for government to restrict printing; the contemporary intent of copyright is to promote the creation of new works by giving authors control of and profit from them. Copyrights are said to be territorial, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific state unless that state is a party to an international agreement.

Today, however, this is less relevant since most countries are parties to at least one such agreement. While many aspects of national copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements, copyright laws of most countries have some unique features. [2] Typically, the duration of copyright is the whole life of the creator plus fifty to a hundred years from the creator’s death, or a finite period for anonymous or corporate creations. Some jurisdictions have required formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.

Privacy (from Latin: privatus “separated from the rest, deprived of something, esp. office, participation in the government”, from privo “to deprive”) is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves and thereby reveal themselves selectively. The boundaries and content of what is considered private differ among cultures and individuals, but share basic common themes. Privacy is sometimes related to anonymity, the wish to remain unnoticed or unidentified in the public realm. When something is private to a person, it usually means there is something within them that is considered inherently special or personally sensitive.

The degree to which private information is exposed therefore depends on how the public will receive this information, which differs between places and over time. Privacy partially intersects security, including for instance the concepts of appropriate use, as well as protection of information. Privacy may also take the form of bodily integrity. The right not to be subjected to unsanctioned invasion of privacy by the government, corporations or individuals is part of many countries’ privacy laws, and in some cases, constitutions. Almost all countries have laws which in some way limit privacy; an example of this would be law concerning taxation, which normally require the sharing of information about personal income or earnings.

In some countries individual privacy may conflict with freedom of speech laws and some laws may require public disclosure of information which would be considered private in other countries and cultures. Privacy may be voluntarily sacrificed, normally in exchange for perceived benefits and very often with specific dangers and losses, although this is a very strategic view of human relationships. Academics who are economists, evolutionary theorists, and research psychologists describe revealing privacy as a ‘voluntary sacrifice’, for instance by willing participants in sweepstakes or competitions. In the business world, a person may volunteer personal details (often for advertising purposes) in order to gamble on winning a prize. Personal information which is voluntarily shared but subsequently stolen or misused can lead to identity theft.