Human growth and development

Ashes to ashes, it is how the circle of life works. We are born without the capability to take care of ourselves and be independent and we do leave the earth that same way. Infants and elderly have a lot in common when you analyze both phases in terms of dependence and abilities. Perhaps the cycle of life was made to be that way to remind us of how short our journey is here on earth, how human we are. Fragile, cannot be solitary, prone to commit mistakes, driven, emotional – some characteristics that further differentiates us from our nearest kin, the apes. Aside from the basic primal instincts, like hunger, thirst, sex, which we share with these animals, just like us they also go through the cycle of life, being born and dying. However, it is only the humans who experience emotional, cognitive, psychosocial, physical and spiritual growth and development. In each phase of life, theories that govern the developmental changes experienced by humans were developed as a tool to quantify these changes and know if one person is already deviating from the norms. The stages of life are categorized as infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence, early and middle adulthood, and lastly, late adulthood.

A baby is born unto this world through a long process known as labor and delivery. As soon as the neonate leaves his or her mother’s womb, he or she enters the infancy stage. The progress of a neonate can be categorized into his or her growth and development. Growth is the physical change and increase in size (Kozier, 2004). On the other hand, development is defined as an increase in the complexity of function and skill progression, and is the behavioral aspect of growth (Kozier, 2004). There are five major components of growth and development and these are physiologic, psychosocial, cognitive, moral, and spiritual. The infant’s task is to go through the normal phases of growth and development until he or she reaches the next phase in his or her life, early childhood. For an individual to be considered currently in the infancy stage, he or she should be less than a year old. The extraordinary newborn displays several characteristics that are, according to theorists, normal for their age. For them, behavior is greatly reflexive and physical growth is rapid (Kozier, 2004). Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses that are critical for an infant’s survival (Feldman, 2008). Hence, according to Piaget’s sensorimotor phase, the infant from birth to 1 month has reflexive actions. Other significant behaviors noted in this theory include the perception of events by the infant that is centered on the body, acknowledgement of the external environment, and distinguishes a goal from a means of attainment (Kozier, 2004).  For the infant’s development, Freud theorized that the infant is in the oral stage, which is characterized by the mouth being the center of pleasure and is a major source of gratification and exploration, security is a primary need, and there will be a conflict when weaning the infant from milk to solid foods (Van Wagner, 2005). In addition to that, Erikson’s theory of development asserts that the infant is going through a task called trust versus mistrust. If the infant successfully goes through this stage, the infant will learn to trust others and if the infant is unsuccessful, he or she will develop mistrust, withdrawal, and estrangement (Harder, 2002). Spiritually, the infant has undifferentiated faith, according to Fowler (Kozier, 2004).

When the infant reaches the age of one year, he or she is now entering the toddler stage. Toddlers have increased motor development that permits them to an increase in physical autonomy, which makes safety a primary concern. From infancy to early childhood, Havighurst’s theory asserts that the individual should be able to learn to walk, take solid foods, talk, control elimination of body wastes, differentiate gender, achieve psychological stability, relate to family members, and distinguish right and wrong (Kozier, 2004). On the other hand, Freud categorizes this age under his anal stage, wherein the anus and the bladder are the sources of pleasure and toilet training is the source of conflict (Van Wagner, 2005).  Erikson’s central task for the 1 to 3 year old is autonomy versus shame and doubt, which if resolved positively the toddler would have self-control without the loss of self-esteem, in contrast to a negative resolution of compulsive self-restraint, willfulness and defiance (Harder, 2002). As for the cognitive development, toddlers are caught in between two phases of Piaget’s theory, as it is still included in the earlier sensorimotor phase and the latter years in the preconceptual phase. Piaget describes this phase as an everything-is-about-me phase wherein the toddler uses an egocentric approach to exploring the environment (Kozier, 2004). According to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the toddler is already in the preconventional stage, in which punishment and obedient orientation is the reason for decisions, behavior and conformity (Kozier, 2004). The preschooler, aged 4 to 6 years old, is still included in the early childhood category. Freud describes this stage as the phallic stage that focuses on the child’s genitals as the center of pleasure (Van Wagner, 2005). It is important to note that in this stage the child identifies with the parent of the opposite sex and will encourage identity (Van Wagner, 2005). Erikson’s central task for the preschooler is initiative versus guilt which if resolved positively will result in learning the degree to which assertiveness and purpose influence the environment as opposed to the negative outcome which is lack of self-confidence, pessimism and fear of wrongdoing (Harder, 2002). The cognitive development of a preschooler is describe by Piaget as the intuitive thought phase in which the egocentric thinking diminishes and already includes others in the environment (Kozier, 2004). As for the child’s morals, although still in the preconventional level, the child has moved on to the next stage which is the instrumental relativist orientation which is described as conformity based on egocentricity and narcissistic needs (Kozier, 2004). A big leap of faith is experienced as the child’s spiritual development starts, according to Fowler. A combination of beliefs and images given by others whom the child trusts is already starting to mix with the child’s own experience and imagination, called the intuitive-projective stage (Kozier, 2004).

The next phase in life will be a milestone as the child now enters the middle and late childhood phase because of the sudden impact of school and their transition to adolescence. Freud describes this age as the latency period wherein energy is directed to physical and intellectual activities (Van Wagner, 2005). Erikson calls this the school age stage and develops the central task of industry versus inferiority (Harder, 2002). The school age will result positively if the child begins to create, develop and manipulate ideas and objects to develop a sense of competence and perseverance (Harder, 2002). On the contrary, a loss of hope, sense of being mediocre and withdrawal from school or peers will be indicative of a negative outcome (Harder, 2002). The school age child’s cognitive development is in the concrete operations phase according to Piaget. In this stage, the child is able to solve concrete problems, understand relationships, differentiate left from right and is cognizant of viewpoints (Kozier, 2004). The child’s moral development has also moved on to the conventional level, caught up in the interpersonal concordance orientation stage in which the decisions and behaviors are based on concerns about other’s reactions (Kozier, 2004). Spiritually, Fowler describes this stage as having a private world of fantasy and wonder and dramatic stories and myths are used to communicate spiritual meanings (Kozier, 2004).

When the individual celebrates their thirteenth birthday, they are now officially entering the adolescent stage. Havighurst’s developmental task for this period is geared towards achieving new and more mature relationships, achieving a masculine or feminine role, selecting and preparing for an occupation, among many others (Kozier, 2004). Freud calls this stage as the genital stage wherein energy is directed toward full sexual maturity (Van Wagner, 2005). Identity versus role confusion is the central task for this age according to Erikson (Harder, 2002).

The following years to come after this stage determines how well the child was able to cope up in his or her early years because the consequences of his or her childhood manifests in the adulthood stage. Basically, the early, middle and late adulthood is described as a series of relationships, commitments, and a sense of completeness and achievement. Following Erikson’s theory, the tasks for these age stages are respectively intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus despair (Harder, 2002). These are the years wherein the individual gets to be tested for self-worth, self-confidence, strength in maintaining relationships and communicating with others, keeping a family and keeping one’s faith.

Although each individual goes through these phases differently, with some more advanced than others, it does not necessarily mean that not going through the aforementioned stages is considered to be a taboo. These are just theories, rough estimates of how humans are supposed to go through their lives while maximizing living here on earth. Learning about these concepts made me develop a critical eye and ear for certain misconceptions about life We should never be judgmental of what we see or hear readily, because we never know what the individual is going through, which part of his or childhood stage was he or she unable to fulfill. Because if there is anything that I can bring with me until my hair turns grey it is that there are numerous factors and influences that can change a person’s course in life. One wrong turn and the consequence will ripple throughout the person’s lifetime. There is no one concrete explanation for a phenomenon; it is always a multitude of things. This means that we cannot hastily judge anybody without considering how the act came to be. After all, we are only human. We need to experience all the hardships and the victories, because if we do not, were probably one era short.

Reference:

Feldman, R. (2008). Understanding Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.

Harder, A. (2002). The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson. Retrieved December 15, 2008, from Learning Place Online Web site: http://www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm

Kozier, B., & Erb, G. (2004). Fundamentals of Nursing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Van Wagner, K. (2005). Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development. Retrieved December 15, 2008, from About.com, a part of The New York Times Company. Web site: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev.htm

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