The effects of CHO

2.2 Literature Review

As antecedently explained, CHO is your organic structure ‘s preferable energy beginning during exercising ( Mitchell et al. , 1989 ) . The theory that CHO improves exercising public presentation is yet to be to the full understood ( Jentjens et al. , 2003 ) . Numerous surveies have extensively investigated the effects of CHO on exercising public presentation and have notably provided conflicting consequences ( Febbraio et al. , 2000a ) . These contradictory consequences are hence impossible to interpret into straightforward nutritionary infomation ( Jentjens et al. , 2003 ) for an jock to follow, as exisiting grounds may hold been magnified by the pick of protocol ( Jeukendrup ) . The importance of CHO as an ergogenic assistance in featuring public presentation has been good established since 1930 ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004b ) , with authoritative surveies looking at dietetic intercessions on musculus animal starch content completed in the late sixtiess ( Bergstrom et al. , 1967 ) . Performance sweetening is a multi million lb industry in the present twenty-four hours, considerable sums of attempt and attending is focused on the nutritionary schemes to better endogenous saccharide shops and extinguish damaging effects associated with CHO depletion ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004a ) .

This reappraisal will concentrate on the effects of dietetic CHO consumption during the yearss taking up to competition, CHO consumption 3-4 hours prior to exert and CHO consumption one hr prior to exert. The ingestion of CHO during exercising has late been proposed as a method to better public presentation ( Angus et al. , 2000 ) , here the reappraisal will see the subject of CHO consumption during exercising and the recent research into CHO rinsing prior to exercising.

2.2.1 Pre-exercise Carbohydrate ingestion

2.2.2 Carbohydrate Loading in the yearss before exercising

When a high CHO repast has been ingested prior to exert it has been reported that athletes found exercise easier than finishing exerise on a high fat diet ( Krogh et al. , 1920 ) . Krogh and collegues provoked farther involvement in this field and ulterior surveies used this information as a base point. After finishing an endurance race jocks blood is found to hold decreased blood glucose concentrations after rushing ( Maron et al. , 1977 ) . These low degrees of blood glucose concentration are a cause of weariness, a hypothesis which was tested by Levine et Al. Marathon smugglers were asked to finish the same endurance contest a twelvemonth subsequently, prior to event twenty-four hours subjects consumed a high CHO diet. As a consequence permonace was improved by forestalling hypoglycaemia ( Levine et al. , 1924 ) . As strength of exercising additions, the use of CHO additions showing the critical function of musculus glyogen in public presentation ( Jeukendrup ) . The observation of increased musculus animal starch content bettering endurance public presentation was linked to a high-CHO diet ( Bergstr & A ; ouml ; m et al. , 1967 ) . This survey by Bergstrom and collegues investigated the effects of a high CHO diet prior to exert followed by a period of CHO want ( Hargreaves et al 2004 ) . The consequences were a subsequent addition in musculus animal starch degrees and endurance exercising public presentation ( Bergstr & A ; ouml ; m et al. , 1967 ) . It has late been shown that a trained jock can heighten animal starch content to 180mml.kg wet mass within a twenty-four hours by devouring 10g CHO /kg organic structure mass whilst staying inactive ( Bussau et al. , 2002, Hargreaves et al. , 1987, Hargreaves et al. , 2004b ) nevertheless animal starch degrees did non increase during farther CHO burden. Coyle et al suggessted jocks could heighten musculus animal starch shops to similar degrees acheived by CHO lading in less than 24 hours. This grounds was based on jocks devouring 10-12.5g CHO.kg-1 organic structure mass and preparation 2 hours per twenty-four hours at 67 % VO2 extremum ( Coyle et al. , 2001, Hargreaves et al. , 2004b ) . However on-going research into increasing musculus animal starch shops found possible that jocks can heighten these shops in less than 24 hours when finishing 3 proceedingss anaerobiotic exercising followed by a high CHO diet ( Fairchild et al. , 2002 ) .

When an jock is required to devour dietetic saccharides in the yearss prior to competition, it is assocciated with an enhanced public presentation for activities enduring longer than 90 proceedingss ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004b, Walker et al. , 2000a ) . The mechanism thought to be responsible for increased public presentation is most likely due to a hold in the point musculus animal starch handiness becomes a factor set uping optimum public presentation ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) . Therefore positive sweetenings in public presentation when CHO lading come from surveies that exercise to exhaustion.

Interestingly exercising public presentation is non farther increased when musculus animal starch degrees are maintained through a pre-exercise CHO repast or eatings during exercising ( Burke et al. , 2000 ) . When detecting the surveies outlined in table 1, tens have suggested an addition in public presentation when devouring a high-CHO diet anterior to exert and x have observed no extra benefits. Furthermore two surveies have outlined no extra benefit of devouring CHO during exercising in CHO-loaded persons ( Flynn et al. , 1987, Widrick et al. , 1993 ) whereas one survey showed an addition in public presentation ( Kang et al. , 1995 ) . An account may be due to blood glucose concentrations during the CHO-loaded province remain maintained during exercising ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) .

The effects of CHO-loading on exercising lasting longer than 90 proceedingss has been good established, nevertheless the effects of CHO-loading on short intense turns of exercising enduring 60-90 proceedingss remain ill-defined ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004, ( Hawley et al. , 1997b, Hawley et al. , 1997a, Abt et al. , 1998 ) . Although an enhanced public presentation has been observed when elevated musculus animal starch content is evident from a high-CHO diet ( Maughan et al. , 1997 ) other literature suggests no benefit from dietetic increased musculus glyogen content ( Hawley et al. , 1997a, B ) due to muscle animal starch handiness in short intense turns of exercising non being a restricting factor in the non-carbohydrate laden test ( Hargreaves et al. , 1997, Hargreaves et al. , 2004b, Abt et al. , 1998 ) . Increasing grounds suggests ingestion of a high-CHO diet has no consequence on intermittent treadmill exercising and association football public presentation ( Abt et al. , 1998 ) . Abt et al speculated that musculus animal starch depletion did non impair the ability of the participant to put to death lucifer specific accomplishments and that alternate weariness mechanisms, either increased lactate production or desiccation can be held accountable as a causative factor in the decrease of performance.The positive sweetening of public presentation found by Maughan et Al may be apparent to due to the extremes of diet, ingestion of a high protein led to apparent hurtful acid-base disturbaces whereas high-CHO diets unimpeachably increased musculus animal starch handiness, therefore holding an result on public presentation ( Maughan et al. , 1997, Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) . On the contrary Balsom and collegues support findings that increased musculus animal starch handiness at short intense turns of exercising is associated with an enhanced public presentation ( Balsom et al. , 1999 ) . Further grounds has postulated that increasing dietrary CHO from 300g to 600g.day-1 two yearss prior to exert improves intermittent exercising public presentation ( Bangsbo et al. , 1992 ) .

Evidence for the sweetening of public presentation through increased dietetic CHO for exercising greater than 90 proceedingss is emerging, by and large it has been found that increasing musculus animal starch 1-7 yearss prior to exert is most good ( Galbo et al. , 1979 ; Hawley et al. , 1997 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) . Interestingly some suggest females do non profit or increase musculus animal starch shops similar to males when submitted to periods of CHO-loading ( Lynch et al. , 2000, Andrews et al. , 2003, Walker et al. , 2000a, Tarnopolsky et al. , 1995 ) although this consequence was acquired due to adult females holding lower dietetic consumptions than males ( Walker et al. , 2000a, Tarnopolsky et al. , 2001 ) . However it has been observed that with sufficient energy and CHO-loading females can increase musculus animal starch shops and benefit public presentation wise to the extent that males do ( Andrews et al. , 2003, Walker et al. , 2000b ) .

2.2.3 Carbohydrate Ingestion 3-4 hours prior to exert

Pre -exercise CHO ingestion additions muscle animal starch content. Beneficial effects of exercising environment the ingestion of a high-CHO repast 3-4 hours prior to exert ( Sherman et al. , 1989, Wright et al. , 1991, Schabort et al. , 1999, Hargreaves et al. , 2004b ) . Contradictory research has found no good consequence of a high CHO repast 3-4 hours prior to exert ( Okano et al. , 1996 ) nevertheless the accounts for enhanced public presentation can be blamed on increased musculus glyogen or reduced liver animal starch shops ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004, ( Achten et al. , 2004 ) . Casey et al discovered that after an nightlong fast ( where jocks were found to tire quicker when viing on empty liver animal starch ( Wright et al. , 1991 ) ) , liver animal starch degrees remain depleted. A high CHO repast prior to exert along with ongoing absorbtion of ingested CHO therefore maintains blood glucose degrees and later improves public presentation ( Casey et al. , 2000 ) . Therefore nutritionary schemes to increase organic structure carbohydrate shops are viewed as good to athletic public presentation capablenesss ( Wright et al. , 1991 ) .

As demonstrated pre-exercise CHO eatings addition liver ( Nilsson and Hultman, 1973 ) and musculus animal starch ( Coyle et al. , 1985, Wright et al. , 1991 ) . What ‘s more interesting nevertheless is the slow gastric emptying rate of concentrated CHO ( Murray, 1987 ) and hence pre-exercise CHO eatings are absorbed during exercising and aid to forestall a bead in blood glucose concentration ( Sherman et al. , 1989 ) , detaining weariness by increasing bodily CHO shops prior to exercising. However it has been found that consumption of glucose anterior to exert later consequences in a brief autumn in blood glucose degrees with the oncoming of exercising ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) . Although plasma glucose and insulin degrees return to basal degrees at the oncoming of exercising ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) , increased CHO oxidization and free fatso acerb mobilization is evident ( Coyle et al. , 1985 ; Sherman et al. , 1989 ) . Once ingesting CHO prior to exert these disturbances can take last for 6 hours ( Montain et al. , 1991 ) , nevertheless they are non deemed damaging to exert public presentation, following increased CHO handiness equilibrating the consequence of greater CHO use ( Hargreaves et al.,2004 ) . Wee and co-workers researched the influences of GI on exercising public presentation. No important differences in public presentation were observed after consumption of repasts that produced different metabolic effects or subsrate use ( Wee et al. , 1999 ) .

It has been postulated that a high CHO repast consumed 3-4 hours prior to exercising has perceived tantamount sweetening of perfomance as when CHO is ingested during exercising ( Chryssanthopoulos et al. , 1994 ) . Further grounds suggests that pre-exercise consumption in combination with CHO ingestion during exercising has a perceived increased sweetening of public presentation ( Wright et al. , 1991 ) .

In order to heighten CHO shops and increase the handiness of CHO during the resulting exercising period, athlethes are recommended to consume 200-300g 3-4 hours prior to exert ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) . In add-on, the ingestion of carbohydrate aid public presentation when recover clip is less than 4 hours ( Khanna and Manna, 2005 ) and therefore consumption of CHO during exercising is frequently impractical and hence for convenience jocks eating CHO prior to exercising is every bit good.

2.2.4 Carbohydrate ingestion 30-60 proceedingss prior to exert

The importance of musculus animal starch during drawn-out exercising and the methods for raising concentration degrees above normal, whilst seeking to cut downing its rate of use during exercising have been comprehensively researched ( Hargreaves et al. , 1984, Yaspelkis et al. , 1993, Ivy et al. , 2003 ) . Supplement of CHO prior to exercising has been found to restrict the diminution in musculus animal starch during durable low ( Ivy et al. , 2003 ) , intermittent ( Hargreaves et al. , 1984 ) and variable strength exercising ( Yaspelkis et al. , 1993 ) . An account for the differences in musculus animal starch degrees amid differing exercising protocols is the response of plasama insulin to CHO ( Ivy et al. , 2003 ) . Consumption of CHO in the hr prior to exert consequences in a big plasma glucose and insulin concentration rush ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004, Ivy et al. , 2003 ) . These metabolic disturbances are associated with a sparing of musculus animal starch and therfore an addition in endurance public presentation ( Ivy et al. , 2003 ; Yaspelkis et al. , 1993 ) .

The oncoming of exercising on the other manus produces a rapid autumn in blood glucose concentration ( Hargreaves et al.,2004 ( Foster et al. , 1979a ) . The combined stimulatory effects of hyperinsulinaemia, contractile musculus glucose consumption and the expiration of liver glucose end product can be held accountable for this sudden lessening in blood glucose ( Febbraio et al. , 2000a, Febbraio et al. , 2000b ) despite ongoing soaking up of CHO ingested prior to exert ( Hargreaves et al. , 2004 ) . Following hyperinsulinemia and a rapid diminution in blood glucose, is the decrease of lipolysis and musculus animal starch ( Foster et al. , 1979b, Okano et al. , 1988 ) reportedly diminishing endurance capacity as a effect of pre exercising CHO consumption ( Foster et al. , 1979 ) . A farther consequence of insulin-mediated suppression of lipolysis is the important addition in in plasma free fatso acid concentrations that occurs with the oncoming of exercising.

• ABT, G. , ZHOU, S. & A ; WEATHERBY, R. 1998. The consequence of a high-carbohydrate diet on the skill public presentation of midfield association football participants after intermittent treadmill exercising. J Sci Med Sport, 1, 203-12.
• ACHTEN, J. , HALSON, S. , MOSELEY, L. , RAYSON, M. , CASEY, A. & A ; JEUKENDRUP, A. 2004. Higher dietetic saccharide content during intensified running preparation consequences in better care of public presentation and temper province. J Appl Physiol, 96, 1331-40.
• ANDERSON, J. , Y. , L. , P. & A ; S. 2009. Nutrition for the Athlete [ Online ] . [ Accessed 02.02.10 2010 ] .
• ANDREWS, J. L. , SEDLOCK, D. A. , FLYNN, M. G. , NAVALTA, J. W. & A ; JI, H. H. 2003. Carbohydrate burden and supplementation in endurance-trained adult females smugglers. Journal of Applied Physiology, 95, 584-590.
• ANGUS, D. , HARGREAVES, M. , DANCEY, J. & A ; FEBBRAIO, M. 2000. Consequence of saccharide or carbohydrate plus medium-chain triglyceride consumption on cycling clip test public presentation. J Appl Physiol, 88, 113-9.
• ASTRAND, P. O. 1979. NUTRITION AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE. Rechcigl, M. Jr. ( Ed. ) . Nutrition and the World Food Problem. Xvii+374p. S. Karger: Basel, Switzerland ; New York, N.Y. , USA. Illus. Paper, P63-84.
• BALSOM, P. D. , GAITANOS, G. C. , SODERLUND, K. & A ; EKBLOM, B. 1999. High-intensity exercising and musculus animal starch handiness in worlds. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 165, 337-345.
• BANGSBO, J. , N & A ; Oslash ; RREGAARD, L. & A ; THORS & A ; Oslash ; E, F. 1992. The consequence of saccharide diet on intermittent exercising public presentation. Int J Sports Med, 13, 152-7.
• BERG, M. J. , TYMOCZKO, J.L. , STRYER, L. Biochemistry, Sara Tenney.
• BERGSTRO.J & A ; HULTMAN, E. 1967. A Survey OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISM DURING EXERCISE IN MAN. Norse Journal of Clinical & A ; Laboratory Investigation, 19, 218- & A ; .
• BERGSTR-M, J. , HERMANSEN, L. , HULTMAN, E. & A ; SALTIN, B. 1967. Diet, musculus animal starch and physical public presentation. Acta Physiol Scand, 71, 140-50.
• BOSCH, A. N. & A ; NOAKES, T. D. 2005. Carbohydrate consumption during exercising & A ; endurance public presentation. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 121, 634-638.
• BURKE, L. , HAWLEY, J. , SCHABORT, E. , ST CLAIR GIBSON, A. , MUJIKA, I. & A ; NOAKES, T. 2000. Carbohydrate lading failed to better 100-km cycling public presentation in a placebo-controlled test. J Appl Physiol, 88, 1284-90.
• BUSSAU, V. , FAIRCHILD, T. , RAO, A. , STEELE, P. & A ; FOURNIER, P. 2002. Carbohydrate burden in human musculus: an improved 1 twenty-four hours protocol. Eur J Appl Physiol, 87, 290-5.
• Chamberss, E. , BRIDGE, M. & A ; JONES, D. 2009. Carbohydrate detection in the human oral cavity: effects on exercising public presentation and encephalon activity. J Physiol, 587, 1779-94.
• CHRYSSANTHOPOULOS, C. , HENNESSY, L. C. M. & A ; WILLIAMS, C. 1994. THE INFLUENCE OF PREEXERCISE GLUCOSE-INGESTION ON ENDURANCE RUNNING CAPACITY. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 28, 105-109.
• COYLE, E. , COGGAN, A. , HEMMERT, M. & A ; IVY, J. 1986. Muscle animal starch use during drawn-out strenuous exercising when Federal saccharide. J Appl Physiol, 61, 165-72.
• COYLE, E. , JEUKENDRUP, A. , OSTEO, M. , HODGKINSON, B. & A ; IVY, J. 2001. Low-fat diets alter intramuscular substrates and reduces lipolysis and fat oxidization during exercising. American Journal of Physiology, 391-398.
• COYLE, E. F. 1995. SUBSTRATE UTILIZATION DURING EXERCISE IN ACTIVE PEOPLE. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, S968-S979.
• COYLE, E. F. 2004. Fluid and fuel consumption during exercising. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 39-55.
• COYLE, E. F. , COGGAN, A. R. , HEMMERT, M. K. , LOWE, R. C. & A ; WALTERS, T. J. 1985. SUBSTRATE Use DURING PROLONGED EXERCISE FOLLOWING A PREEXERCISE MEAL. Journal of Applied Physiology, 59, 429-433.
• DAVISON, G. W. , MCCLEAN, C. , BROWN, J. , MADIGAN, S. , GAMBLE, D. , TRINICK, T. & A ; DULY, E. 2008. The effects of consuming a carbohydrate-electrolyte drink 15 proceedingss prior to high-intensity exercising public presentation. Res Sports Med, 16, 155-66.
• FAIRCHILD, T. , FLETCHER, S. , STEELE, P. , GOODMAN, C. , DAWSON, B. & A ; FOURNIER, P. 2002. Rapid saccharide burden after a short turn of near maximal-intensity exercising. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34, 980-6.
• FEBBRAIO, M. , CHIU, A. , ANGUS, D. , ARKINSTALL, M. & A ; HAWLEY, J. 2000a. Effectss of saccharide consumption before and during exercising on glucose dynamicss and public presentation. J Appl Physiol, 89, 2220-6.
• FEBBRAIO, M. , KEENAN, J. , ANGUS, D. , CAMPBELL, S. & A ; GARNHAM, A. 2000b. Preexercise carbohydrate consumption, glucose dynamicss, and musculus animal starch usage: consequence of the glycemic index. J Appl Physiol, 89, 1845-51.
• FLYNN, M. , COSTILL, D. , HAWLEY, J. , FINK, W. , NEUFER, P. , FIELDING, R. & A ; SLEEPER, M. 1987. Influence of selected saccharide drinks on cycling public presentation and animal starch usage. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 19, 37-40.
• FOSTER, C. , COSTILL, D. & A ; FINK, W. 1979a. Effectss of preexercise eatings on endurance public presentation. Med Sci Sports, 11, 1-5.
• FOSTER, C. , COSTILL, D. L. & A ; FINK, W. J. 1979b. EFFECTS OF PRE-EXERCISE FEEDINGS ON ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 11, 1-5.
• FOSTERPOWELL, K. & A ; MILLER, J. B. 1995. INTERNATIONAL TABLES OF GLYCEMIC INDEX. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62, S871-S890.
• FOUNDATION, B. N. Carbohydrate [ Online ] . Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nutrition.org.uk/ [ Accessed 10.02.10 2010 ] .
• GALASSETTI, P. , GIBBONS, F. K. , HAMILTON, K. S. , LACY, D. B. , CHERRINGTON, A. D. & A ; WASSERMAN, D. H. 1998. Enhanced musculus glucose uptake facilitates nitrogen outflow from exercised musculus. Journal of Applied Physiology, 84, 1952-1959.
• GIBNEY, M. J. , VORSTER, H.H. , KOK, F.J Introduction to Human Nutrition, Blackwell Science LTD.
• GRIEL, A. E. , RUDER, E. H. & A ; KRIS-ETHERTON, P. M. 2006. The altering functions of dietetic saccharides – From simple to complex. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology, 26, 1958-1965.
• GUEZENNEC, C. Y. , SATABIN, P. , DUFOREZ, F. , MERINO, D. , PERONNET, F. & A ; KOZIET, J. 1989. Oxidation OF CORN STARCH, GLUCOSE, AND FRUCTOSE INGESTED BEFORE EXERCISE. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 45-50.
• HARGREAVES, M. , COSTILL, D. L. , COGGAN, A. , FINK, W. J. & A ; NISHIBATA, I. 1984. EFFECT OF CARBOHYDRATE FEEDINGS ON MUSCLE GLYCOGEN UTILIZATION AND EXERCISE PERFORMANCE. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 16, 219-222.
• HARGREAVES, M. , COSTILL, D. L. , FINK, W. J. , KING, D. S. & A ; FIELDING, R. A. 1987. EFFECT OF PRE-EXERCISE CARBOHYDRATE FEEDINGS ON ENDURANCE CYCLING PERFORMANCE. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 33-36.
• HARGREAVES, M. , FINN, J. P. , WITHERS, R. T. , HALBERT, J. A. , SCROOP, G. C. , MACKAY, M. , SNOW, R. J. & A ; CAREY, M. F. 1997. Consequence of musculus animal starch handiness on maximum exercising public presentation. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 75, 188-192.
• HARGREAVES, M. , HAWLEY, J. & A ; JEUKENDRUP, A. 2004a. Pre-exercise saccharide and fat consumption: effects on metamorphosis and public presentation. J Sports Sci, 22, 31-8.
• HARGREAVES, M. , HAWLEY, J. A. & A ; JEUKENDRUP, A. 2004b. Pre-exercise saccharide and fat consumption: effects on metamorphosis and public presentation. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 31-38.
• HAWLEY, J. A. , DENNIS, S. C. , NOWITZ, A. , BROUNS, F. & A ; NOAKES, T. D. 1992. EXOGENOUS CARBOHYDRATE OXIDATION FROM MALTOSE AND GLUCOSE INGESTED DURING PROLONGED EXERCISE. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 64, 523-527.
• HAWLEY, J. A. , PALMER, G. S. & A ; NOAKES, T. D. 1997a. Effectss of 3 yearss of carbohydrate supplementation on musculus animal starch content and use during a 1-h cycling public presentation. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 75, 407-412.
• HAWLEY, J. A. , SCHABORT, E. J. , NOAKES, T. D. & A ; DENNIS, S. C. 1997b. Carbohydrate-loading and exercising public presentation – An update. Sports Medicine, 24, 73-81.
• IDE, K. , SCHMALBRUCH, I. K. , QUISTORFF, B. , HORN, A. & A ; SECHER, N. H. 2000. Lactate, glucose and O-2 consumption in human encephalon during recovery from maximum exercising. Journal of Physiology-London, 522, 159-164.
• IVY, J. L. , COSTILL, D. L. , FINK, W. J. & A ; LOWER, R. W. 1979. INFLUENCE OF CAFFEINE AND CARBOHYDRATE FEEDINGS ON ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 11, 6-11.
• IVY, J. L. , RES, P. T. , SPRAGUE, R. C. & A ; WIDZER, M. O. 2003. Consequence of a carbohydrate-protein addendum on endurance public presentation during exercising of changing strength. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13, 382-395.
• JENTJENS, R. , CALE, C. , GUTCH, C. & A ; JEUKENDRUP, A. E. 2003. Effectss of pre-exercise consumption of differing sums of saccharide on subsequent metamorphosis and cycling public presentation. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 88, 444-452.
• JEUKENDRUP, A. Carbohydrate consumption during exercising and public presentation. Nutrition, 20, 669-77.
• JEUKENDRUP, A. & A ; JENTJENS, R. 2000. Oxidation of carbohydrate eatings during drawn-out exercising: current ideas, guidelines and waies for future research. Sports Med, 29, 407-24.
• JEUKENDRUP, A. , WAGENMAKERS, A. , STEGEN, J. , GIJSEN, A. , BROUNS, F. & A ; SARIS, W. 1999. Carbohydrate consumption can wholly stamp down endogenous glucose production during exercising. Am J Physiol, 276, E672-83.
• JOYNER, M. J. & A ; COYLE, E. F. 2008. Endurance exercising public presentation: the physiology of title-holders. Journal of Physiology-London, 586, 35-44.
• KANG, J. , ROBERTSON, R. , DENYS, B. , DASILVA, S. , VISICH, P. , SUMINSKI, R. , UTTER, A. , GOSS, F. & A ; METZ, K. 1995. Consequence of saccharide consumption subsequent to carbohydrate supercompensation on endurance public presentation. Int J Sport Nutr, 5, 329-43.
• KHANNA, G. L. & A ; MANNA, I. 2005. Auxiliary consequence of carbohydrate-electrolyte drink on athleticss public presentation, lactate remotion & A ; cardiovascular response of jocks. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 121, 665-669.
• KREBS, H. & A ; JOHNSON, W. 1980. The function of citric acid in intermediate metamorphosis in carnal tissues. FEBS Lett, 117 Suppl, K1-10.
• KROGH, A. , LINDHARD, J. , LILJESTRAND, G. & A ; ANDRESEN, K. G. 1920. The comparative value of fat and saccharide as beginnings of muscular energy. With appendices on the correlativity between standard metamorphosis and the respiratory quotient during remainder and work. Biochemical Journal, 14, 290-363.
• LAMBETH, D. O. , TEWS, K. N. , ADKINS, S. , FROHLICH, D. & A ; MILAVETZ, B. I. 2004. Expression of two succinyl-CoA synthetases with different nucleotide specificities in mammalian tissues. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 279, 36621-36624.
• LEIJSSEN, D. P. C. , SARIS, W. H. M. , JEUKENDRUP, A. E. & A ; WAGENMAKERS, A. J. M. 1995. OXIDATION OF EXOGENOUS C-13 GALACTOSE AND C-13 GLUCOSE DURING EXERCISE. Journal of Applied Physiology, 79, 720-725.
• LEVINE, S. , GORDON, B. & A ; DERICK, C. 1924. Some alterations in chemical components of blood following a endurance contest race. JAMA, 82.
• LYNCH, N. J. , GALLOWAY, S. D. R. & A ; NIMMO, M. A. 2000. Effectss of moderate dietetic use on intermittent exercising public presentation and metamorphosis in adult females. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 81, 197-202.
• MARON, M. B. , HORVATH, S. M. & A ; WILKERSON, J. E. 1977. BLOOD BIOCHEMICAL-ALTERATIONS DURING RECOVERY FROM COMPETITIVE MARATHON RUNNING. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 36, 231-238.
• MAUGHAN, R. J. , GREENHAFF, P. L. , LEIPER, J. B. , BALL, D. , LAMBERT, C. P. & A ; GLEESON, M. 1997. Diet composing and the public presentation of high-intensity exercising. Journal of Sports Sciences, 15, 265-275.
• MCARDLE, WILLIAM D. , K. , FRANK I. , K. & A ; L, V. 2000. Exercise Physiology, Lippincott Williams & A ; Wilkins.
• MCARDLE, WILLIAM D. , K. , FRANK I. , K. & A ; L, V. 2006. Exercise Physiology: Energy, nutrition and Human Performance.
• MITCHELL, J. B. , COSTILL, D. L. , HOUMARD, J. A. , FINK, W. J. , PASCOE, D. D. & A ; PEARSON, D. R. 1989. INFLUENCE OF CARBOHYDRATE DOSAGE ON EXERCISE PERFORMANCE AND GLYCOGEN-METABOLISM. Journal of Applied Physiology, 67, 1843-1849.
• MONTAIN, S. J. , HOPPER, M. K. , COGGAN, A. R. & A ; COYLE, E. F. 1991. Exert METABOLISM AT DIFFERENT TIME INTERVALS AFTER A MEAL. Journal of Applied Physiology, 70, 882-888.
• MURRAY, R. 1987. THE EFFECTS OF CONSUMING CARBOHYDRATE-ELECTROLYTE BEVERAGES ON GASTRIC-EMPTYING AND FLUID ABSORPTION DURING AND FOLLOWING EXERCISE. Sports Medicine, 4, 322-351.
• NICHOLAS, C. W. , TSINTZAS, K. , BOOBIS, L. & A ; WILLIAMS, C. 1999. Carbohydrate-electrolyte consumption during intermittent high-intensity running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31, 1280-1286.
• NILSSON, L. H. & A ; HULTMAN, E. 1973. LIVER-GLYCOGEN IN MAN – Consequence OF TOTAL STARVATION OR A CARBOHYDRATE-POOR DIET FOLLOWED BY CARBOHYDRATE REFEEDING. Norse Journal of Clinical & A ; Laboratory Investigation, 32, 325-330.
• OKANO, G. , TAKEDA, H. , MORITA, I. , KATOH, M. , MU, Z. & A ; MIYAKE, S. 1988. EFFECT OF PRE-EXERCISE FRUCTOSE INGESTION ON ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE IN FED MEN. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20, 105-109.
• REHRER, N. , WAGENMAKERS, A. , BECKERS, E. , HALLIDAY, D. , LEIPER, J. , BROUNS, F. , MAUGHAN, R. , WESTERTERP, K. & A ; SARIS, W. 1992. Gastric voidance, soaking up, and carbohydrate oxidization during drawn-out exercising. J Appl Physiol, 72, 468-75.
• RUMESSEN, J. J. & A ; GUDMANDHOYER, E. 1986. ABSORPTION CAPACITY OF FRUCTOSE IN HEALTHY-ADULTS – Comparison WITH SUCROSE AND ITS CONSTITUENT MONOSACCHARIDES. Gut, 27, 1161-1168.
• SALMERON, J. , MANSON, J. E. , STAMPFER, M. J. , COLDITZ, G. A. , WING, A. L. & A ; WILLETT, W. C. 1997. Dietary fibre, glycemic burden, and hazard of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in adult females. Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 472-477.
• SCHABORT, E. J. , BOSCH, A. N. , WELTAN, S. M. & A ; NOAKES, T. D. 1999. The consequence of a preexercise repast on clip to tire during drawn-out cycling exercising. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31, 464-471.
• SCHAMASCH & A ; P. 2003. Nutrition for Athletes [ Online ] . Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.turin2006.com/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_833.pdf [ Accessed 02.02.10 2010 ] .
• SCRUTTON, M. C. & A ; UTTER, M. F. 1968. REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS AND GLUCONEOGENESIS IN ANIMAL TISSUES. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 37, 249- & A ; .
• SHERMAN, W. , BRODOWICZ, G. , WRIGHT, D. , ALLEN, W. , SIMONSEN, J. & A ; DERNBACH, A. 1989. Effectss of 4 Hs preexercise carbohydrate eatings on cycling public presentation. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 21, 598-604.
• SOLOMON, E. P. , BERG, L.R. , MARTIN, D.W. Biology, Adams, P.
• TARNOPOLSKY, M. A. , ATKINSON, S. A. , PHILLIPS, S. M. & A ; MACDOUGALL, J. D. 1995. CARBOHYDRATE LOADING AND METABOLISM DURING EXERCISE IN MEN AND WOMEN. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78, 1360-1368.
• TARNOPOLSKY, M. A. , ZAWADA, C. , RICHMOND, L. B. , CARTER, S. , SHEARER, J. , GRAHAM, T. & A ; PHILLIPS, S. M. 2001. Gender differences in saccharide burden are related to energy consumption. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91, 225-230.
• THOMAS, D. , BROTHERHOOD, J. & A ; BRAND, J. 1991. Carbohydrate feeding before exercising: consequence of glycemic index. Int J Sports Med, 12, 180-6.
• VOLLESTAD, N. K. & A ; BLOM, P. C. S. 1985. EFFECT OF VARYING EXERCISE INTENSITY ON GLYCOGEN DEPLETION IN HUMAN-MUSCLE FIBERS. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125, 395-405.
• WALKER, J. , HEIGENHAUSER, G. , HULTMAN, E. & A ; SPRIET, L. 2000a. Dietary saccharide, musculus animal starch content, and endurance public presentation in well-trained adult females. J Appl Physiol, 88, 2151-8.
• WALKER, J. L. , HEIGENHAUSER, G. J. F. , HULTMAN, E. & A ; SPRIET, L. L. 2000b. Dietary saccharide, musculus animal starch content, and endurance public presentation in well-trained adult females. Journal of Applied Physiology, 88, 2151-2158.
• WEE, S. L. , WILLIAMS, C. , GRAY, S. & A ; HORABIN, J. 1999. Influence of high and low glycemic index repasts on endurance running capacity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31, 393-399.
• WIDRICK, J. , COSTILL, D. , FINK, W. , HICKEY, M. , MCCONELL, G. & A ; TANAKA, H. 1993. Carbohydrate eatings and exercising public presentation: consequence of initial musculus animal starch concentration. J Appl Physiol, 74, 2998-3005.
• WILMORE, JH. , C. & A ; DL 1999. Physiology of Sport and Exercise, Human Kinetics.
• WOLEVER, T. M. S. , KATZMANRELLE, L. , JENKINS, A. L. , VUKSAN, V. , JOSSE, R. G. & A ; JENKINS, D. J. A. 1994. GLYCEMIC INDEX OF 102 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE FOODS IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES. Nutrition Research, 14, 651-669.
• WRIGHT, D. , SHERMAN, W. & A ; DERNBACH, A. 1991. Carbohydrate eatings before, during, or in combination improve cycling endurance public presentation. J Appl Physiol, 71, 1082-8.
• YASPELKIS, B. B. , PATTERSON, J. G. , ANDERLA, P. A. , DING, Z. & A ; IVY, J. L. 1993. CARBOHYDRATE SUPPLEMENTATION SPARES MUSCLE GLYCOGEN DURING VARIABLE-INTENSITY EXERCISE. Journal of Applied Physiology, 75, 1477-1485.