Importance Of Jerusalem In Jewish Rhetoric Religion Essay

This paper will look at the rhetoric of both modern-day and historical churchmans and figures in the Muslim universe as it pertains to the business of Jerusalem and violent Jihad. The paper will demo the significance the Israeli business of the sanctum sites in Jerusalem has in calls for violent Jihad. I will be able to utilize primary beginnings such as addresss and interviews, every bit good as secondary scholarly works written on the subject to clearly exemplify this. In add-on to discoursing the spiritual significance of Jerusalem, its usage in earning support for terrorist Acts of the Apostless and in the enlisting of terrorists, the paper will stop by looking at the significance Jerusalem plays in the Palestinian/Israeli peace procedure. As Secretary General of the United Nations declared, “ Jerusalem must be the capital of two States – Israel and Palestine – populating side-by-side in peace and security, with agreements for the sanctum sites acceptable to all, if peace in the Middle East is to be achieved ” in October of 2009 at a imperativeness conference.

Jerusalem is one of the metropoliss in the universe whose History has been widely written and contentions environing it widely followed. It is considered the holly metropolis by Christians, Jewish and Muslims. In its long being, it has been occupied by really diverse powers and up to now it still evokes really strong emotions among the Judaic and in the Muslim universe. It has been a phase for many a bloody war and the hassle for its control do n’t look probably to stop any clip shortly. Muslims claim to be the rightful people to put claim on Jerusalem because they argue that it was from there that Muhammad was taken to heaven. However, the name Jerusalem does non look in the Quran but its in the Hadith. Arab historiographers of the in-between ages argue that after the metropolis was conquered, the so reigning Caliphate went personally into the metropolis to have it and prayed at that place. Sixty old ages subsequently, a shrine was built environing the rock from which it is believed Muhammad ascended to heaven. At the same clip, Jewish who had centuries earlier been banned from the metropolis by king Nebuchadnezzar were allowed to travel back and coexist in peace. The generation of the current deadlock in Jerusalem can be traced from early 20th century when the Jews communities scattered in assorted parts of the Palestinian district and the remainder of the universe began to dribble into Jerusalem. With in period of a few old ages, the metropolis was so crowded that the occupants started to travel and settle outside it. Soon there were violent clangs between the Jewish, Arabs and the British colonial powers and this subsequently led to the division of Jerusalem into two with the E traveling to the Arabs and the western portion traveling to the Jewish. After the 1967 six yearss war, the whole of Jerusalem was claimed by Israel and Israeli legislative assembly or the Knesset declared it an Israeli metropolis for infinity. This Israeli claim is non recognized by the United Nations which for peaceable usage of Jerusalem as a holly site to both the Judaic and the Palestinians. Apart from the United provinces, most other states do non acknowledge the Israeli claim on Jerusalem.Arabs from west bank, Gaza and other Palestine districts are allowed to come to Jerusalem for spiritual activities but there are those who banned for assorted grounds. Harmonizing to biblical beginnings and on which archaeologists by and large agree, Jerusalem was captured by king David from the jebusites and so he fortified it. It became the most august shrine for all the Jews and subsequently the capital metropolis of the land of Judah when Israel split into two. Even now the Judaic worldwide recognize Jerusalem as their race ‘s most of import of import Centre of worship. Harmonizing to Christians, it was at Jerusalem that the apostles of Jesus received the holly spirit and started proclaiming the Resurrection of their christ. Therefore, it is obvious that with such a yesteryear, the issue of who is the rightful proprietor of Jerusalem is bound to arouse so many emotions among assorted groups of people.

JIHADIST RHETORIC

Jihad means battle. This smuggle may be either personal in order to take a more holly life or the battle to better the general public assistance of the brothers and sisters within the communities where we live. The concluding and most widely used definition of the term jehad is to mention to a holly war that is a war meant to support or propagate 1s spiritual belief. Therefore Jihadist rhetoric in this instance refers to statements set away by Muslims to interest their claim on Jerusalem and besides inflame spiritual tensenesss for several other causes. The Jihadist ‘s rallying has ever been that the Jewish has no claim whatsoever on the holly metropolis of Jerusalem and are simply an busying power which should be dislodged at all cost. To the Jihadist, the warriors ought to utilize all agencies possible to free the holly metropolis of these “ heathens ” . Therefore, allow me look at how on assorted occasions this affectional issue of Jerusalem has been used in order to win support to the Jihadist motions.

OSAMA BIN LADEN

Osama was born and brought up in Saudi Arabia. He studied direction and economic sciences at the University before he joined the mujahidin in Afghanistan to contend for its release from the custodies of the Soviet forces. On 21st February 2001, the Aljazeera orbiter intelligence channel of Qatar shown a really emotional and about tearful Al-Qaeda originator and universe leader Osama Bin Laden declaiming an ode to Jerusalem and vowing to avenge against the forces which have continued to guarantee continued business by the Zionists ( Israel ) .Such an act, largely entreaties to immature Muslims and this makes them to easy volunteer for suicide missions believing that is the right thing to make in order to support their faith from onslaught by non-believers. Before the six yearss of war in 1967, the Osama household owned a Villa in Jerusalem but the war forced them to travel back to Saudi Arabia until 1980s.In the wake of the terrorist onslaughts on United States on September 11, 2001, the house became a tourer attractive force. Therefore, portion of what drives Osama ‘s fury is a feeling of being disenfranchised and in a manner that Jerusalem is portion of his heritage. In 1998, together with Ayman al-Zawahiri, they signed a fatwa naming for the release of the holy Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem every bit good as mecca.With this, he urged Muslims worldwide to kill North Americans and other reformers universe broad. This formed the ulterior footing for the 2001 onslaughts on the United States. Later, Osama claimed duty for T he attacks. On 15th January this twelvemonth, while talking on an audio tape, Osama promised retaliatory onslaughts on the United provinces and Israel in order to revenge the lives of Palestinians who had been killed in the Gaza barrage carried out by the Israeli forces. During the tape, Osama appealed to more young persons to fall in the Mujahidin to contend for their faith and free the holly metropolis. It ‘s evident hence that Jerusalem is a really of import beat uping point in the enlisting of terrorists.

Cleric

Sheikh Tkrima Sabri -Mufti of Jerusalem and Palestine

This is the highest ranking Muslim authorization in Jerusalem and Palestine. He has been quoted diversely praising the kid sufferer and naming on more young persons to give their lives for the interest of their community and spiritual standing. He has diversely said that he had profound respect degree Fahrenheit or the immature sufferer, and he remembered one adolescent stating him that one time he was through with his suicide mission, he would travel and get married the beautiful black eyed girdles in Eden. Come the following twenty-four hours, the immature adult male had committed suicide bombing and was already dead. In interview with World Net Daily on November, 10,2000, he encouraged many more childs to encompass martyrdom and forfeit, stating that the less the age at the clip of choosing for martyrdom, the bigger the forfeit. He said Palestinian parents are happy when their childs opt for martyrdom because one time the childs are born ; it is made clear to them that their function is to support the Palestinian land, reclaim the holly metropolis of Jerusalem and the eventual obliteration of Zionists from the Palestinian district. He said that the increased figure of kids who were now taking portion in the suicide bombardments was an indicant that the future coevalss who continue with the battle to deliver the Palestinian fatherland from the custodies of the business forces. He said that although they were yet to win in the release of Al-aqsa mosque in Jerusalem, it was merely a affair of clip. He said that he can ne’er recognize a Jew and that is the degree of hatred he would wish to instill into Palestine kids to guarantee that they grow up to be the future liberators of the state from the custodies of the Zionists. He supports the instruction of kids vocals like the activist one which has the words: when I wander into Jerusalem I will go a suicide bomber. Therefore we can see that Jerusalem is the focal point on any activists who want to enroll voluntaries for their assorted terrorist Acts of the Apostless.

Dr Muhammad Tahir Al-Qadir

Dr Tairi is a Muslim bookman of distinction who has written widely about the dissentious issue of Jerusalem, terrorist act and other issues refering to muslin religion. Early in March 2010, issued a 600 page fatwa, that is spiritual governing against terrorist act. However on its launch, he said that every clip he has tried to deter Muslim young person from force and terrorist act, they ever ask what angry and powerless people can make when they are confronted by issues of slaughter like in Palestine, Iraq and Afganistan.He said that the fatwa will hold small impact on the terrorists, but it will alter the populaces ‘ perceptual experience of Islam. In the fatwa, Dr Tahiri argues that it is unaccountable how one can bomb a market topographic point full of guiltless kids and adult females and anticipate to be considered a sufferer. He explains that although other fatwa ‘s have been issued once more suicide bombardments and terrorist act his is the first fatwa to give blow by blow destruction of the political orientations on which the Al-Qaeda is established.

Abdu Hadi Palazzi

This is another vocal observer on the issues of Jerusalem and Israel. He is the secretary general in the Italian Muslim Association. Palazzi accept Jewish claim to Jerusalem and the remainder of the holly land. He argues that it was the will of Allah that the Jewish would suppress the land and busy it. He goes farther and quotes poetries within the Quran to warrant his place. Harmonizing to Palazzi, Jerusalem is to Jewish what Mecca is to Muslims, hence he do n’t suppress with those he calls overzealous churchmans and Pseudo Clerics like the mufti of Jerusalem. Professor Palazzi has all the certificates to talk magisterially on affairs refering to Islamic religion. He has PhD in Islamic Sciences conferred to him by the expansive mufti of Saudi Arabia and several old ages of survey and going with several august Islamic instructors. Prof.Palazzi claims that some rich churchmans of the Wahabi religious order have hijacked Islam and particularly those from Saudi Arabia. Harmonizing to Pallazzi, the Imams who have a opportunity to put the records straight are compromised through the authorities support of Islamic missions to assorted states. Prof. Palazzi points out that it is unjust for Muslims to deny entree to their fellow brethren the Christians to Temple mount. Palazzi is a member of an organisation which encourages foreign states with their embassies in Israel to relocate them to Jerusalem in acknowledgment of it as the ageless ownership of Israel and the Centre of the universe ‘s worship. However, this is one churchman who chairs several commissions on affairs to make with the Judaic province and critics might be speedy to trade name him an self-seeker capitalizing in the issue of Palestinian statehood and Status of Jerusalem for his ain personal addition. He Names some Islamic churchmans in Pakistan whom he says are in understanding with him but ca n’t talk out publically for fright of victimization.

VIEWS OF MUSLIM POLITICAL LEADERS ON JERUSALEM ISMAIL HANIYEH

He is the leader of Palestinian radical group, the hamas.He has ever repeatedly said that he would ne’er acknowledge the usurper authorities of Zionists until the release of Jerusalem. There individuality has Hamas revolves about the claim to pay a jehad for the release of the Palestinian parts from the custodies of the Israelites. Although Hamas trounced the moderate al-Fatah party led by Mahmud abas in the 2006 elections therefore prehending power in Gaza WHILE Fatah won in the West bank, it has shown no involvement to prosecute neither United provinces nor any other possible negotiant on the manner frontward for peace in the in-between E and particularly the contested countries. The precursor of the Palestinian release motions, the PLOs ( Palestinian release organisation ) stated purpose is the overall devastation of Israel and the eventual constitution of Palestine province on its original boundary lines with the whole of Jerusalem as portion of the new province. Hamas attacks Fatah and other less utmost motions claiming they are non making plenty for the release of the holly land. However, it is interesting to that that it is Israel which gave free reign to Hamas for it to make the current degree of extreamism.The thought of the Israeli leading so was that the existent menace to their business and security ballad with the nationalist motions like the Palestinian release motion. Unfortunately for them they came to recognize when it was excessively late the existent menace when Hamas turned itself into full pledged panic unit transporting out all signifiers of onslaughts against the Israel soldiers, civilians and substructure. The Hamas motion subjugates adult females and it made compulsory the erosion of hijab by the ladies. Therefore, many ladies end up have oning the hijab merely for the interest of have oning it in order to avoid the torment of the hamas.During a triumph mass meeting after routing the moderate Fatah in the elections, Ismail Haniye, the Hamas leader said that they would ne’er acknowledge the right of the Israelites to be along the in the in-between E.

RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF JERUSALEM TO MUSLIMS

Arguably there is no other metropolis in the universe that is every bit controversial as Jerusalem. It has been claimed by three mainstream faiths and still all of them idolize it. These faiths are Judaism, Christianity and Jewish all claim. Jerusalem has had several political and spiritual alterations over the old ages but Muslims kept it for 13 centuries except for the little break which occurred for 103 old ages when the reformers had occupied it. Therefore the chief issue is non about who is entitled but who has greater entitlement to this holy metropolis. Muslims claim that after the Ascension of Prophet Muhammad from Jerusalem, they protected the metropolis from invasion and loot of the Byzantines and Persians. Besides harmonizing to them, it is the 3rd holy metropolis among the Islam disciples apart from Mecca and Medina. To farther back up their claim, they argue that during the first one and half twelvemonth of the being of Islam, they worshiped while confronting Jerusalem but after a Godhead bid they changed the way and started confronting Mecca. Another really of import spiritual issue about Jerusalem is that it has dome of the stone from which prophesier Muhammad did go up to heaven. For a long clip, several Muslims from around the universe came to Jerusalem in order to idolize and undergo spiritual instructions. Therefore to Muslims universe broad Jerusalem is non is non so much about the metropolis merely, but Palestine as a whole. To bulk of Muslims, Palestine is non merely land, but a affair of religion. For illustration the caput of the Muslim brotherhood in Egypt has argued that yielding any portion of Palestine to the Israelites is like making off with a part of their religion. Muslim brotherhood further argues that the architecture in Egypt is bequeathed the metropolis by Muslims. T o farther back up their statement, they argue that Caliph Ummayed proclaimed himself calif in Jerusalem hence if Jerusalem was non of import he would hold done it in Damascus. Any loss of district in Jerusalem therefore to Muslims means it deprives Palestinians of their Unique place has the keepers of the holly land. They farther believe that Muhammad ‘s journey through the Palestinian district before go uping to heaven was a approval to the land. They believe that dickering about Jerusalem means making the same to Mecca and Medina it would besides intend abdicating their heroes and sufferer. Therefore, to them this is kindred to treason. Quoting the Quran, they say that it condemns people who relinquish their ownerships to their enemies and says Muslims Must ever fight to repossess what has been taken from them. Therefore cognizing that the Egyptian Muslin Brotherhood has really many followings among the young person across the Egypt and in several other states where Islam is the dominant faith, the issue of Jerusalem easy raises the piques and leads to increased figure of those willing to be recruited. Although Muslim brotherhood has been officially banned in Egypt since they mounted the strongest challenge so far to the presidential term of President Hosni Mubarak. Muslim brotherhood is the wise mans of several hawkish groups worldwide which have taken on the name “ brotherhood ” . Therefore the issue of Jerusalem is non merely a Palestinian issue but an issue for all the Muslims universe broad. It is non a beat uping call for terrorist act merely among the Palestinians ; it is a beat uping call to all the Muslim youth worldwide.

ROLE OF JERUSALEM IN THE PALESTINE/ ISRAEL PEACE AGREEMENT

Before the six yearss war between Israel and Palestine in 1967, Jordan ruled the Eastern side of Jerusalem while the other portion was under the Israeli regulation. Israel war curate had warned Jordan that if it joined the Arab universe in the against Israel, when the war ended Israel would take the remainder of Jerusalem. Therefore true to its menace, Israel took over Jordan ‘s portion of the Jerusalem. To the choler of the Jewish, they found their temples vandalized and a latrine holding been built tilting on the western wall. They merely cleaned their holly topographic points and left those of the others integral. The Muslim holly topographic points were left unfastened for their usage. Therefore the province the Judaic met their holly topographic points in is a major detering factor that may do them ne’er to yield any portion of Jerusalem to the Palestinians. On the other manus the United Nations wanted a incorporate international metropolis none allied to any of the haggle parties. Therefore, Israel argues it fulfilled the UN want of a United and urges states to relocate their foreign missions to the City. When, Israel defeated the Palestinians in the six twenty-four hours war, the Judaic took it to intend that God was bit by bit reconstructing to them their promised heritage and therefore yielding any portion of that heritage was tantamount to cold-shouldering what God had gifted to them and therefore traveling against the will of God. Some of the Jewish who are purely for holding the metropolis of Jerusalem forever in Israel draw their support from the narrative in the Bibles whereby Esau sold his birthright to their male parent Jacob ( Israel ) . Therefore to the Judaic cession Jerusalem is kindred to yielding their birth right. Therefore, because every hereafter program refering to the constitution of Palestine / Israel boundary lines must ever touch on the position of Jerusalem, it is one of the taking obstructions non merely to peace between the Palestine ‘s and the Israelites, but it ‘s a major hinderance to peace in the in-between East as a whole. This metropolis besides is the burial site of Jesus Christ, who started Christianity and to whom bulk of Christians revere as the boy of God. Therefore, we the Christians besides to stand up and put claim to Jerusalem, so it would stop up being another universe war.Jerusalem ‘s position as a spiritual Centre for the international community does non do affairs any easier for It because of the associated f fiscal addition from tourers who flock it from around the universe to try its celebrated heritage. In dispute to the United Nations declarations, Israel went in front and relocated most of its ministries from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem every bit good as the Knesset ( parliament ) . Besides Israel has gone a caput and increased the size of Jerusalem municipality ten times its original size against the wants of the remainder of the universe that see this as an hindrance to any future peace in the in-between East. There have besides been claims of unreal decrease of the figure of Judaic colonists in Jerusalem by usage of policies like lodging Quotas and torment in order to do the Palestinians give up and go forth Jerusalem wholly. Besides the Palestinians life in Jerusalem are considered aliens therefore they are issued with particular Identity cards bespeaking one is a ‘permanent occupant ‘ .When one is issued with such an individuality card in the really state in which he was born, it is really formidable. Besides the Judaic governments have continued spread outing their colonies towards the East of Jerusalem to the alarm of the Palestinians. This because Jerusalem is merely expandible to the E. Therefore peace between Israel and Palestine ‘s remains a mirage, and it remains to be seen weather it can be made a world within our life-time There has been accusals and counter accusals from both sides over profanation of holly topographic points, and it is extremely unlikely that any side who trust the other incase of a lasting and concessionary boundary to divide the two states.

CONCLUSSION

In decision hence, Jerusalem is a metropolis that will go on to be major international issue for the times to come. As childs continue to be born to Muslims universe broad and become indoctrinate on how their faith ‘s 3rd holy metropolis is under control of Judaic profession to Judaism, their will ever be voluntaries for utmost Acts of the Apostless of terrorist act against the ‘occupiers ‘ of the holly metropolis and their friends. Although with modernness some Acts of the Apostless of atrociousness are someway veiled, every power which has of all time occupied Jerusalem has ever been know for intolerance. For case, the Christians used to fire or butcher Judaic and Muslims. Besides disciples of these two faiths were non allowed to populate within the metropolis. A permanent solution to this job of Jerusalem hence ought to be found in order to stem the job of extremism and terrorist act. If a lasting solution is non found to the job of Jerusalem, so terrorist act will ever be with us because it will ever be the beat uping call Muslims to fall in hawkish groups like Al-Qaeda and others.

Preliminary Bibliography:

i‚· ^ Lewis, Bernard. The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York: The Modern Library, 2003. p. 150.

i‚· ^ Breger, Marshall J. and Steven L. Spiegel. “ Why Likud Needs the Peace Process. ” Middle East Forum. February 1999. 20 July 2009. “ Likud concerns that-no affair what the Palestine Liberation Organization says to Israelis and Westerners and whatever pacts it signs-it does non accept the lasting being of a Judaic province in the Middle East but uses diplomatic negotiations as portion of a ‘strategy of stages ‘ to destruct Israel. ”

i‚· ^ “ Who is a Palestine refugee? ” . hypertext transfer protocol: //www.un.org/unrwa/refugees/whois.html. Retrieved 2008-07-01.A

i‚· ^ Bard, Mitchell. “ The Palestinian Refugees ” . Judaic Virtual Library. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/refugees.html. Retrieved 2008-07-01.A

i‚· ^ Sharp, Heather ( 2004-04-15 ) . “ Right of return: Palestinian dream ” . BBC News. hypertext transfer protocol: //news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3629923.stm. Retrieved 2008-07-01.A

i‚· ^ “ HHaniyeh calls for formation of Palestinian province on 1967 lines. ” Haaretz. December 19, 2006.

i‚· ^ “ Hamas Covenant ” . The Avalon Project at Yale Law School.. 1988-08-18. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/hamas.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-01.A

i‚· ^ Benhorin, Yitzhak. “ Hamas: Ceasefire for return to 1967 boundary line ” . Yedioth Group. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340, L-3207845,00.html. Retrieved 2008-07-01.A

i‚· ^ Toameh, Khaled ( 2005-09-26 ) . “ Jihad ‘unhappy ‘ with Hamas ceasefire ” . Jerusalem Post. hypertext transfer protocol: //info.jpost.com/C005/Supplements/GazaUpheaval/n.04.html. Retrieved 2008-07-01.A

i‚· ^ Pollock, David. “ Rejectionists Cooking to Counter U.S. Peace Push. ” Washington Institute for Near East Policy. 1 September 2009. 5 September 2009.

Abdul Hadi Palazzi, “ Antizionism and Antisemitism ” hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ummah.net/islamic_institute/ Fine but may desire to Google him. Very controversial both re his makings and his statement

A.L. Tibawi, Jerusalem: Its Topographic point in Islam and Arab History ( Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1969 )

Bernard Wasserstein, Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City ( London, Profile Books, 2001 )

Bin Laden, Osama. “ Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders ” . ( World Islamic Front Statement, 23/2/1998 )

Bin Laden, Osama. Remarks via Al-Jazeera Interview. ( 7/10/2001 ) .

Documentation on Al-Qa’ida: Interviews, Statements and Other Primary Sources. ( Norse Defense Research Establishment, 2002 ) .

Ghada Talhami, “ Jerusalem in the Muslim Consciousness, ” The Muslim World, 86 ( 1996 )

Ibrahim Hooper, “ Jerusalem Belongs to All Faiths, ” The Washington Post, Oct. 16, 1996.

Marshall J. Breger and Thomas A. Idinopulos, Jerusalem ‘s Holy Places and the Peace Process ( Washington: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1998 )

Martin Kramer, “ Delivering Jerusalem: The Pan-Islamic Premise of Hizballah, ”

Meron Benvenisti, Jerusalem: The Torn City ( Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976 )

PA Mufti ‘Ikrama Sabri quoted in Khalid Amayreh, “ Mufti of Palestine: Alqods is the Sister of Mecca and Madina, ” Islamic Association for Palestine, Aug. 6, 2000 ; Hasan Abu ‘Ali, a rock throwing adolescent, quoted in Associated Press, Sept. 30, 2000

Armstrong, Karen ( 1996 ) . Capital of israel: One City, Three Faiths. Random House

Thursday, December 16, 2010

Thursday, December 16, 2010

i‚· “ … modern Jerusalem, Israel ‘s largest metropolis… ” ( Erlanger, Steven. Jerusalem, Now, The New York Times, April 16, 2006. )

i‚· “ Jerusalem is Israel ‘s largest metropolis. ” ( “ Israel ( state ) [ dead nexus ] ” , Microsoft Encarta, 2006, p. 3. Retrieved October 18, 2006. Archived 2009-10-31. )

i‚· “ Since 1975 incorporate Jerusalem has been the largest metropolis in Israel. ” ( “ Jerusalem ” , Encyclop?dia Britannica Online, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2006. Archived 2008-06-21 )

i‚· “ Jerusalem is the largest metropolis in the State of Israel. It has the largest population, the most Jews and the most gentiles of all Israeli metropoliss. ” ( Klein, Menachem. Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City, New York University Press, March 1, 2001, p. 18. ISBN 0-8147-4754-X )

i‚· “ In 1967, Tel Aviv was the largest metropolis in Israel. By 1987, more Hebrews lived in Jerusalem than the entire population of Tel Aviv. Jerusalem had become Israel ‘s premier metropolis. ” ( Friedland, Roger and Hecht, Richard. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, September 19, 2000, p. 192. “ World Islamic Front ‘s Statement Urging Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders ” ( February 23, 1998 )